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Processes of Believing: The Acquisition, Maintenance, and Change in Creditions

Introduction: What We Do Not Know About Believing - Approaching a New Scientific Hot Spot Belief: Between Crucial Importance and Neglect The Crucial Importance of Belief Belief: Over-Complex and Scientifically Isolated Belief: Interwoven with Religion Belief: A Strange and Seemingly Unattractive Phenomenon Belief as a New Hot Spot Neglect of Belief: A Meander The Case Against the Underestimation of the Relevance of Belief Crossroads: From Belief to Believing Believing as Process Credition as a Normal Process of Believing The Chapters of the Book I. Introduction II. Psychology and Neuroscience III. Philosophy IV. Theology, Religious Studies, and Anthropology V. Social Sciences VI. Natural and Computer Sciences Conclusion References Credition: From the Question of Belief to the Question of Believing Belief as a Complex and Ill-defined Phenomenon Problematic Aspects of Belief Conceptual Incompatibility of Overlapping Fields Dominance of “Belief” as a Noun “Religious Belief” as a Prime Example of the “Belief-as-Noun” Problem Change to Credition: From Static Belief to the Process of Believing Signals of the Need for a Change in Perspective - The Path to Credition Illusion of an Easy Change Focus on Process and Process Philosophy Focus on “Normal” Processes of Believing Claims, Interdisciplinary Challenges, and Open Questions Credition: Model Building and Terminology Towards a Model of the Believing Process (Credition): Origin and Basic Assumptions Psychological View on Religious Experiences Relations Between Credition, Emotion, and Cognition Bab: Bridging the Gap Between What We Know and Lack of Terminology The Term “Bab”Characteristics of “Babs”Blob: The Subliminal Aspect of “Babs”Credition: A Model of the Process of Normal Believing Theoretical Challenges for a Model of Creditive Processes Bab as Basic Unit of a Creditive Process Bab-Blob-Configuration Credition: Poly-functionality of a Believing Process Enclosure Function Converter Function Stabilizer Function Modulator Function Conclusion References II Psychology and Neuroscience Believing, Remembering, and Imagining: The Roots and Fruits of Meanings Made and Remade Strange Ways in Which Humans Work We Are Left with Questions Evolutionary Development of Meaning Making Is Foundational to Believing Perceptual Capabilities Learning Intuiting Implementing Remembering Imagining Conclusion References Connection Between Scripts Embedding Motor Schemes and Decision Making Basic Elements of Codification The Human Brain and Symbolic Systems Three Levels of Action The Mental Organization and Codification Credition Conclusion References Beliefs and Believing as Possible Targets for Neuroscientific Research Introduction Belief Formation Grounded in Perception Role of Beliefs for Decision Making Role of Beliefs to Cope with the Future References Neurobiological Factors Underlying Attachment and Trust in the Believing Process Introduction Social Neuroscience Believing - In What?Neurobiological Grounds Bridging Neurobiological Grounds to Processes of Believing Discussion References New Concepts on the Motor System: Implications for Emotions and Credition Introduction The Mirror Neuron System in the Monkey The Mirror Neuron System in Humans The Mirror Neuron System and the Understanding of Intentions Mirror Mechanisms for Emotions Conclusion: Implications for (and from) the Theory of Credition References Neural Underpinnings of the Human Belief System Introduction Moral Beliefs Legal Beliefs and Punishments Political Beliefs Religious Beliefs Conclusions Future Directions/Main Outstanding Questions References Believing in the Effectiveness of Treatment: From Placebo to Credition and Back Introduction What Is the Placebo Effect?A Short History of Placebo Research Motivations to Study the Placebo Effect Psychological and Neurobiological Mechanisms of Placebo Effects Expectations Learning Processes Positive Shift in Emotions Is There a “Placebo Responder Personality"?Neurobiological Mechanisms of Placebo Effects The Dynamics of Treatment Expectations Placebo Effects and the Framework of Credition Expectation The Role of Consciousness Neuroimaging Studies Conclusions References The Power to Live with Disasters: Adaptive Believing Processes of the Self and World Introduction The Factors of the Power to Live as Adaptive Believing Processes Adaptive Belief Organization at the Face of Adversity (Enclosure Function)Problem-Solving Emotion Regulation Interpersonal Behavioral Facility (Converter Function)Altruism Leadership Belief Protection Against the Value Disturbance (Stabilizer Function)Stubbornness Self-Transcendence Environmental Maintenance (to Optimize the Modulator Function)Active Well-Being Etiquette Discussion on the Map Towards Neurocognitive Models Conclusion References Belief and Belief Formation: Insights from Delusions Introduction Studying Delusions Stages of Belief Formation Precursor The Search for Meaning Candidate Belief Evaluation Accepting or Holding the Belief Consequential Effects of Holding the Belief Conclusion References Functional and Dysfunctional Religious/ Spiritual Beliefs in Psychotic Disorders A Bio-Psycho-Socio-Spiritual Model of Health and Disease Religious/Spiritual Beliefs and Psychosis - Two Sides of a Coin?A Multidimensional Approach for the Assessment of Religious/Spiritual Beliefs Magical Thinking as an Indicator of Schizotypy The Relationship between Religious/Spiritual Beliefs, Magical Thinking and Personality Functioning The Function of Religious/Spiritual Beliefs in Psychotic Patients References III Philosophy The Theory of Credition and Philosophical Accounts of Belief: Looking for Common Ground Belief and Knowledge Belief and Religion From Belief to Believing: The Theory of Credition and Philosophical Accounts of Belief References Credition and Justification Introduction What Is Belief?What Is Faith?What Is a Process?What Is Rationality?What Is Justified Belief?Modus Operandi for an Epistemic Theory of Justified Belief Modus Operandi for a Non-epistemic Theory of Justified Belief In Conclusion References Hume on the Origins of Religious Belief Hume’s The Natural History of Religion and the Modern Study of Religion An Overview of Hume’s Account of the Causes of Religious Belief The Bearings of Neuroscientific Credition Research on Hume’s Account References The Structure of Credition in Whitehead’s Metaphysics of Experience Credition and Proposition Proposition and Religion Symbolization of Religious Experience Conclusion References Brain and Self - A Neurophilosophical Account Background: Conceptual Determination of the Self in Philosophy Background: Empirical Investigation of the Self in Neuroscience Philosophical Concepts: Mental Self Philosophical Concepts: From the Metaphysical to the Empirical Self Philosophical Concepts: Minimal Self Philosophical Concepts: Social Self Neuroscientific Findings: Spatial Patterns of Neural Activity During Self-Specific Stimuli Neuroscientific Findings: Temporal Patterns of Neural Activity During Self-Specific Stimuli Neuroscientific Findings Ic: Social Patterns of Neural Activity During Self-Reference Neurophilosophical Discussion: Different Forms of Specificity Neurophilosophical Discussion: Neuronal Specificity of Midline Regions Neurophilosophical Discussion: Psychological and Experimental Specificity Neurophilosophical Discussion: Self-Specificity and Other Functions Neurophilosphical Discussion: Self, Belief and Valuation References Creditions and Self-Identity: Embodiment Between Actions and (Life) Decisions Introduction Elements of a Credition Theory From Actions to Beliefs Beliefs and Self-Identity Conclusion: Credition Theory and Its Promise References A Process Pragmatist Heuristics of Believing Introduction Religion in Classical Greece Plato’s Divided Line William James’ Process Pragmatism A Summary of Contingent Claims References IV Theology, Religious Studies, and Anthropology Cognition, Emotion, and the Ethics of Authenticity Introduction Beliefs and Judgments Reason (Cognition) and Flow (Emotion)Reason and Complexity The Pre-thematic and the Linguistic: Towards a Structure of Convergence A Theological Afterword Conclusion References Recent Scientific Explanations of Religious Beliefs: A Systematic Account Introduction Results from a First Systematic Review About Theoretical Frames and Methods About Results and Contents About Evidence Levels Reviewing the State of Research: An Open Panorama Religious Beliefs and General Beliefs: The Pars Pro Toto Problem?References Soul and Body According to “De Fide Orthodoxa” of St. John Damascene Theological Thinking and the Complexity of the Process of Believing The Universal Character of Faith - Structures/Creditions The Cognitive and Emotional Character of Faith The Cognitive Dimension of Faith The Emotional Dimension of Faith The Soul - Body Complementarity References Music as a Medium of Personal Motion and Belief: Some Phenomenological Reflections At the Beginning - Where Does Music Come from?What Happens if Someone Is Singing, Playing Music or Listening to Music?Music and Brain, Music and Body Singing - Medicine Against Fear and Medium of Belief in Ritual Contexts Artificial Music - Transcending Consciousness and Imagining a Different World Music and ‘Creditions’References V Social Sciences Reconciliation After a Protracted Violent Conflict: Do Believing Processes Play a Role, and Which One? A Research Agenda Introduction: Problems of Re-construction and Reconciliation After Violent Conflict Three Conceptulizations of “Ethnicity” and the Pitfalls of Political and Legal Theory Conclusion References Understanding Young People’s Worldview A Practical Example of How to Work with the Model of Credition The Problem with Beliefs Framework of the Credition Theory Intention of Research Procedure Sampling Working Process of Bab-Configuration and Enclosure Process Definition of the Clum Bab-Configuration Mightiness Everyday Questions and Formulation of the Clums The Results and Their Presentation Concluding Remarks References Approaching Another Black Box: Credition in Economics Introduction and Overview Beliefs, Trust and Credition in the History of Economic Thought Pure Economics: Full Information “Without Credition”Credit Markets, Labor Exchange and the Economics of Institutional Change Conclusion References Credition in Business - Innovations with Crowdbusiness Rational Decision Making vs. Disruptive Innovations The Role of Emotions and Creditions - The Credition Theory in a Nutshell Applying Credition Theory in Innovation Management A Tool Supporting the Communication of Creditions in Innovation Management Processes A New Perspective - Innovation, Credition and the Crowd A Framework for Crowdbusiness Conclusion - Credition in Crowdbusiness References VI Natural and Computer Sciences Creditions and Modern Computer Science Introduction Examples Image Denoising Supervised Learning Bayes Formula Summary References Public and Personal Causations of Creditions Introduction Public Causes of Creditions and Formal Languages Personal Creditions and Formal Languages Procedural Pluralism Formal Pluralism Consistent Systems Interaction Between Public and Personal Creditions Open Road to Personal Beliefs Ineffable Semantics Personal Motions and Public Emotions Belief in Motions and Symbolic Personal Language The Emotions and the Public Formal Beliefs and Language Conclusion and Future Work References Wave-Particle Duality and Quantity-Quality Complementarity in Natural and Human Sciences: Implications for Credition Research Introduction Basic Terms, Laws, and Principles Equilibrium vs. Dissipative Structures Information Energy Entropy Gnergy Definition Experimental Evidence The Gnergy Principle of Organization (GPO)Gnergy, Practopoiesis, and ITR (Irreducibole Triadic Relation)Gnergy and the Concept of Babs in the Credition Theory Peircean Semiotics The Peircean Sign and the Irreducible Triadic Relation (ITR)Possible Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Peirce’s Hypostatic Abstraction Category Theory What Is a Category?The ur-Cateogry and Its Diagrammatic Representation What Is a Functor?Complementarity vs. Supplementarity Conclusion References Interoception and Gut Feelings: Unconscious Body Signals’ Impact on Brain Function, Behavior and Belief Processes Introduction The Gut-Brain Axis Interoception Interoception, Gut Feelings and Belief Processes References Decision-Making and Credition Under a Microbial Perspective The Healthy Microbiome Basic Insights into the Human Microbiome Our Eating and Sexual Behavior Is Influenced by the Gut Microbiome The Unbalanced Microbiome Depression and the Role of the Microbiome Social Anxiety Disorders and the Role of the Microbiome Chronic Diseases and the Role of the Microbiome Decision-Making and Credition Under Microbiome Influence References Structuring Credition Transformation of How We Talk: From Belief to the Process of Believing Consequences of the Transformation Conceptual or Functional Explanation of the Believing Process Bridging Translation Transfer Process of Believing: Theory and Model Model of the Believing Process Theory of the Believing Process Application of the Model Future Perspectives References

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