Explaining the origins and development of the natural world

There is overwhelming scientific evidence supporting evolution by natural selection, the underlying biological theory that species change over time, give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor. However, around 39 per cent of adults in the US reject the very idea of evolution, and about 40 per cent accept it—a relatively low rate when compared to other economically prosperous nations.⁸ Researchers have proposed that the comparatively low acceptance of evolution in America (as compared to other countries) is due in part to widespread religious fundamentalism.

Religious groups often present evolution by natural selection as incompatible with religious ideas about the origins and development of the natural world, such as intelligent design. Intelligent design includes the underlying assumption that the universe and living things are designed and created by an intelligent entity. Those who endorse intelligent design often identify as creationists. Creationists hold the view that the universe and life originated from specified acts of divine creation, such as through the work of God. For instance, scientists estimate the world to be 4.5 billion years old and maintain that species evolve through mutation and selection, which are processes that involve a degree of randomness, and genetic error. By contrast, many young- earth creationists believe that God intentionally created the world and all species between 6,000 to 10,000 years ago. This is an example of a conflicting account because the purported relationship between science, or more specifically, biological evolution and religious accounts of the world, is viewed as incompatible.

Others construe the relationship between biological evolution and religious accounts of the origin and development of the world as compatible. For example, those who endorse “theistic evolution” (also known as “evolutionary creationism”) hold views that regard religious teachings about God as compatible with modern scientific understandings of evolution. The list of proponents of theistic evolution includes a list of established religious figures, including Pope Benedict XVI. When people reason that these accounts are compatible, they often adopt a form of coexistence reasoning referred to by cognitive scientists as integrated thinking, in which evolutionary and religious explanations are combined into a single account. For example, many proponents of theistic evolution point out that while evolutionary theory explains how life and species evolve gradually, it is neutral on the question of how life began on earth in the first place.

Many instances of integrative thinking about religion and evolution provide a single explanation of the origins and development of the world that includes a causal chain of proximate and distal causes. As we discussed in Chapter 3 (Research Questions), distal causes are the most distant, or ultimate causal explanation of the event. For instance, that God creates the conditions under which evolution can occur. Proximate causes are the closest causal explanations to the event, for example, how life and species evolve. This type of integrative thinking includes the view that a deity guides evolution by specifying the laws that govern it (i.e. distant cause). The outlook also leaves species to evolve according to the conditions they experience as time goes by (i.e. the proximate cause).¹⁰ Even school-age children, who may not have an accurate understanding of evolutionary biology', will nonetheless exhibit this type of integrative thinking, reasoning that God created the first monkeys, and then humans evolved from them.¹¹ Nevertheless, many subpopulations in the US hold views about the nature of the world that are not construed as compatible with scientific accounts of biological evolution, and they reject evolutionary theory in favor of creationist explanations.

Participation 1: Case study: Should public schools teach students about evolution and present intelligent design as an alternative?

Background

The perceived conflict between scientific and religious views of the origins and development of the world and its inhabitants is apparent in the debate over whether, and how, public schools should teach students about evolution and present intelligent design as an alternative. These issues have been debated in many states and at all levels of state government. Currently, whether or not intelligent design is taught in public schools, and indeed, whether schools opt out of teaching evolution altogether, differs by state.¹² Science and education communities have sought to provide reassurance that scientific knowledge does not contradict religious beliefs because it says nothing about religious realities or values. Despite these efforts, many continue to believe that the theory of evolution threatens and is in direct conflict with their religious beliefs.

Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District

In September 2005, 11 parents of public-school children sued the Dover Area School District in Pennsylvania because the school board changed its biology-teaching curriculum to require that intelligent design is taught as a scientific alternative to evolution by natural selection. The case was the first direct challenge in the US federal courts testing a public-school district policy that required teaching intelligent design. Much of the trial featured testimonies from theologians, professors, and other specialists arguing for and against the explanatory power of evolution and the relevance of intelligent design as a scientific alternative. The case was the first direct challenge in the US federal courts testing a public-school district policy that required teaching intelligent design. The judge ruled that intelligent design was a religious theory and should not be taught in science class.

Assignment

• • After researching this case on the internet, outline at least four arguments in total, including those for and against the explanatory power of evolution and the relevance of intelligent design as a scientific alternative.
• • Label these arguments as either conflict or compatibility accounts of the relationship between biological evolution and supernatural explanations of the world.
• • Rank these arguments concerning how convincing you find them on a scale of 1-4.
• • Explain in a few sentences why you find the top-ranked argument most convincing and the lowest-ranked argument least compelling.
• • Do you think public schools teach students about evolution and present intelligent design as an alternative? Explain your answer.

Key points

• • Children and adults find some types of explanations intuitively more compelling than others.
• • Cognitive scientists of religion have proposed that biases towards particular types of explanations often make religious views of the world more compelling than scientific or other views.

• • Intuitions may impinge on the scientific understanding of the world, especially the origins and development of the natural world and its inhabitants.
• • Religious groups often present evolution by natural selection as incompatible with religious ideas about the origins and development of the natural world and species, such as intelligent design.
• • Sometimes religion and science are construed as compatible, and people integrate supernatural and natural explanations to explain the origins and development of the world and species.