Key determinants of effective monitoring and evaluation

Table 6.1 presents the summary of the determinants of effective M&E. The frequency of the determinants as cited in the reviewed literature was indicated so as to establish the ranking of determinants that influence effective implementation of M&E. In sum, the top three most discussed influencing factors of effective M&E established through the review of the relevant literature are budgetary allocation, stakeholder involvement and technical capacity and training from a combination of diverse industries and context. Similarly, two other factors which appear significant but have not been thoroughly studied for their level of influence on construction project M&E are communication and leadership of M&E implementation. Together, these five M&E-determining factors are considered for the development of the integrated conceptual model.

Table 6.1 Determinants of effective M&E

Source: Author’s literature review

A = Kamau and Mohamed (2015), B = Otieno Okello (2015), C = Waithera and Wanyoike (2015), D = Mwangi et al. (2015), E = Musomba et al. (2013), F = Mugo and Oleche (2015), G =Tengan and Aigbavboa (2016), H = Mugambi & Kanda (2013), 1 = Seasons (2003), J = Crawford and Bryce (2003), K = Kimweli (2013), L = Ogolla & Moronge (2016), M = Muiga (2015), N = Oloo (2011), O = Mulandi (2013), P = Njama (2015)

72 Theories, models and concepts

6.3.1. Stakeholder involvement

Stakeholders had evolved since 1963 when it first appeared at the Stanford Research Institute (SF1) in the literature of organizational management till date (Elias & Cavana, 2000). In M&E, the involvement of stakeholders is critical for many reasons. Key project stakeholders’ involvement in M&E will drive the need to meet their expectations and to create an opportunity to share M&E responsibilities. Involvement of stakeholders in any organization activities is crucial for its survival (Freeman, 2004; Freeman et al., 2010; Hôrisch, Freeman & Schaltegger, 2014), hence their involvement in the M&E process is necessary and cannot be overlooked. Freeman et al. (2010) described stakeholders as a group of people in whose support lies the survival of the organization or company. In modern literature, the composition of stakeholders has evolved to include individuals or group of people who are directly or indirectly involved, who influence or are being influenced by the outcome of a project (Bourne, 2010; Elias & Cavana, 2000; Eyiah-Botwe, Aigbavboa & Thwala, 2016; Hermans, Haarmann & Dagevos, 2011). In construction project delivery, several stakeholders exist to participate in project implementation. However, their involvement in the M&E process is limited.

For the effective M&E of construction projects at the local government level, Elias and Cavana (2000) argue for the identification of project stakeholders based on their financial support of the project. In Ghana, the central government, being the primary financier of development in the country, has the right to ensure accountability of its financial commitment towards project delivery, just as all donor agencies or sponsors of projects. The municipal, metropolitan and district assemblies (MMDAs) at the local government level represent this interest of government (local government) and thus ensure that projects are tracked for progress as well as the efficient, effective sustainability of the project. Project consultants, according to the Project Management Institute (PMI) (2010), are also organizations with the requisite knowledge, skills and experience in a particular area of discipline who assist organizations to improve project practice and management. They are therefore external organizations that are entrusted with the implementation of the project and receive a fee for such services. Implemented of the project or development, i.e. the contractors, cannot be left out. Contractors are central to the M&E process (Mwangu & Iravo, 2015) since it is their performance that is checked against the desired standards and specifications. Their commitment to construct per specification will contribute to the successful project delivery.

The end users or beneficiaries of the project also need to be involved in the project through M&E. Beneficiary involvement in the M&E process increases their interest in the project and opportunities such as job opportunities are created for them. Suppliers and service providers, the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) are all essential stakeholders in the construction project delivery and their involvement in the M&E of projects may be necessary. Stakeholders are therefore necessary and the project cannot succeed without them (Muiga, 2015). Stakeholders must therefore be identified early prior to the start of the project (Elias & Cavana, 2000). However, caution is necessary about the number of stakeholders to be involved in the M&E since greater numbers can unduly influence the smooth implementation of the project and the evaluation process (Patton, 2010). It is significant to ensure that stakeholders participate in the M&E process through representation since all the interested parties cannot be brought on board to participate in the process (Hermans et al., 2011) and also considering the scarce resources available for M&E in most cases. Indeed, a good monitoring team is said to be that which has a good stakeholder representation (Kamau & Mohamed, 2015).

Stakeholder involvement in this book is premised on the effective and conducive project environment to foster effective stakeholder involvement and interaction in the entire M&E process. The recognition and composition of stakeholders in project committees and having regard for their competencies, knowledge and interest are important to encourage and sustain the involvement of interested parties in the M&E practice (Magondu, 2013). It is important to explicitly outline the stake or interest of all identified stakeholders (Elias & Cavana, 2000). The level of involvement in the project M&E is greatly influenced by the kind of stakeholders; contractors and consultants are integral (key parties) in the project implementation and as such, are usually engaged in the M&E, unlike stakeholders such as the beneficiary community who are only involved in the project during community entry and project closure. Key to stakeholder involvement is the efficient management of the stakeholder relationship, power structure and influence in the project (Naidoo, 2011). Regardless of the kind of stakeholder, the level of motivation as well as training can drive the active involvement of all stakeholders (Ruwa, 2016). The process of M&E results in the generation of an M&E report; proper communication of M&E reports among stakeholders and appropriate implementation of these reports are imperative to sustain the continuous involvement of stakeholders in M&E. Their constant commitment is sustained through the provision of training and development on the importance of, use and need for M&E results.

6.3.2 Budgetary allocation

Allocating adequate financial resources for M&E during budgeting is imperative to achieve the effectiveness of M&E (Kimani, 2014). The successful implementation of M&E is firmly rooted in the provision of the adequate financial resource (Kimani, 2014; Mugambi & Kanda, 2013; Mugo et al., 2015; Muiga, 2015; Musomba et al., 2013; Ogolla & Moronge, 2016; Oloo, 2011; Seasons, 2003). Sufficient funds allocated for monitoring and evaluation activities are necessary. Hwang and Lim (2013) are of the view that budgetary performance could lead to project success. It is therefore vital to realistically draw up a clear budget line specific to M&E and incorporate it into the overall project cost. Studies have indicated that the method of budgeting, i.e. a fixed percentage of the contract price or fixed amount for M&E, is significant. A minimum recommendation of between 3% and 5% of the total project cost has been advocated as a reasonable budget allocation for

M&E. The scope and complexity of M&E, as well as the number of stakeholders involved in the M&E, should, however, be considered when budgeting since it will influence the amount of budget allocated. A form of budgetary disbursement for M&E activities is necessary to ensure that funds are available throughout the M&E process. Timely release of M&E funds having regard to the M&E duration will also influence the allocation of budget for M&E. The sources of funding (internally generated funds or donor funding) is critical in sustaining budgetary allocation. To guarantee that budgeting is done correctly and efficiently, the need for periodic auditing (internal/external) of the M&E budget will ensure budget allocations are sustained and rightly so, influence the M&E of projects effectively.

6.3.3 Technical capacity and training

M&E is a technical activity and therefore the technical capacities of an M&E unit and its staff/team are important as these underpin the effective implementation of M&E. Technical capacity is a unique and practical knowledge possessed by the project team whereas training is a planned experience that assists individuals to acquire new skills, knowledge and attitude to address developmental problems (USAID, 2010). The strength of an organization in dealing with M&E is associated with its human resource capacity (Muiga, 2015); without skilled personnel, M&E systems cannot work on their own (Mulandi, 2013). The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2009) indicated that capacity development is the process of gaining, strengthening and maintaining skills and capabilities for achieving developmental goals and objectives within the specific time frame. The integration of the conventional training approach is explained by the UNDP to describe training on the use and application of new technology available to a capacity development approach which sees training as part of a comprehensive programme seeking to address capacity issues; learning to use and apply readily available technologies which are best suited for the industry; personal development of employees with an incentive for innovation; empowering the development of trainers, trainees and associating personal performance to team performance which are critical for development (UNDP, 2009).

Studies have acknowledged the important role played by the level of the technical capacity and training in M&E to achieve project success (Mugo et al., 2015; Muiga, 2015; Mulandi, 2013; Musomba et al., 2013; Ogolla & Moronge, 2016; Oloo, 2011; Otieno Okello, 2015; Waithera et al., 2015). The presence of systems and financial resources are necessary but on their own, they cannot sufficiently guarantee project success, but rather ownership and technical capacity development (UNDP, 2009). The question to ask is whether the M&E team has the necessary capacity and strength to undertake effective M&E. The UNDP (2009) further indicates that effective capacity development is better achieved in an enabling environment at the organizational level and by individuals. An enabling environment concerns the organizational policies, rules and power relationships within an organization which is to function efficiently with the involvement of individuals (stakeholders) who have acquired the required skills, experience and knowledge through prior educational training or observation and doing (involvement). These have been summed up into four enablers by the UNDP as an institutional arrangement, leadership, accountability and knowledge (UNDP, 2009).

The Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness adopted in 2005 and re-affirmed in 2008 in Accra-Ghana was signed by over one hundred donors and developing countries (Bissio, 2007). According to Otoo, Agapitova & Behrens, (2009), the capacity to plan, manage, implement and account for results ensured the achievement of development goals and objectives, hence the need for development of M&E capacity. Planning, managing and implementing the M&E process of projects are successful with the right training in M&E. Otoo et al. (2009) indicate that factors presented in the framework can be used as a basis to measure the impact of capacity development. The outlined indicators include conduciveness of the sociopolitical environment, the efficiency of policy instrument and the effectiveness of the organizational arrangement. A study in Indonesia revealed that capacity development is necessary to combat challenges impeding the achievement of success (Subijanto, Ruritan & Hidayat, 2013). The study further indicated the key success factors for capacity development as strong leadership, incentive schemes and the spirit of innovation, willingness and eagerness to take on new challenges.

Given the influence of capacity development on the effective and efficient M&E implementation of projects, the training, either self or corporate training of staff, of an M&E unit cannot be overstated. Kontoghiorghes (2001) informs that for training to occasion the needed capacity development, the effectiveness of the training, the level of trainee knowledge prior to the immediate training, management and organizational support, the frequency of training and the degree of employee involvement in training are critical. Similarly, Punia and Kant (2013) reviewed the factors affecting training effectiveness and identified management support and the style or form of training as key in developing capacity. In a meta-analysis study of the effectiveness of deception detection training, Driskell (2012) identified the content of training and trainee expertise as moderators of training effectiveness.