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The Observational Method in Civil Engineering: Minimising Risk, Maximising Value

The Art of Achieving Agreement Key Factors The Power of Progressive Modification Summaries of Featured Case Histories References Channel Tunnel Cut and Cover Works (1988–1990)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Overview Geology Design Uncertainties Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Creating Opportunity Finding the Key Implementation of the OM Development of Progressive Modification Construction Sequence, Form and Geometry Design Constraints Addressing Uncertainty Instrumentation and Monitoring Castle Hill East – The OM Stage 1: Initiation Measured Performance at CHE Sugarloaf Hill – The OM Phase 2: Development Castle Hill West – The OM Phase 3: Conclusion Landslip Loading Connection with the NATM Tunnels Interface Coordination The OM and ‘Most Probable’ Conditions Conclusions References Mansion House (1989–1991)Introduction Key Aspects of the Design and Construction Foundations in the Building’s History The Challenge Presented by the DLR Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Addressing Complexity Creating the Solution through the OM Introduction of the OM Traffic Light System Implementation of the OM Managing Risk The Profound Influence of Soil/Structure Interaction Instrumentation and Monitoring Temperature-Induced Cyclic Movements Development of Progressive Modification Critical Observations, Trigger Levels and Contingencies Results Overview Detailed Assessment The Benefit of Hindsight Conclusions References Limehouse Link (1991–1993)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Overview Geology Original Design Value Engineering Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Overcoming Traditional Barriers The Key to Consensus Implementation of the OM Extending the Process of Progressive Modification Sequence for Each Implementation of the OM Observations, Trigger Levels and Contingencies Measured Performance Increasing Beneficial Design Changes Personnel and Communication Achieving Simple and Effective Monitoring Construction Plant and Resources Limehouse Basin Construction Reaching the Practical Limits of the OM Monitoring Becomes Intensive Implementation of the OM in Limehouse Basin Added Value Still Achieved Risk and Insurance Conclusions References Heathrow Express Cofferdam (1994–1995)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Overview Geology - Conditions Prior and Post Collapse Contractual Conditions The Cofferdam Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Safety and Innovation Progressive Modification Offers the Way Forward Implementation of the OM The Recovery Solution Cofferdam Configuration Innovations in Piled Wall Design and Construction Design Development A Bespoke Design for Progressive Modification Observations, Trigger Levels and Contingencies Measured Performance and Design Improvements Conclusions References Heathrow Airport Multi-Storey Car Park 1A (1995–1996)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Overview Geology Tunnel Construction Car Park Structure Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Implementation of the OM Traffic Lights, Trigger Levels and Contingencies Risk Assessments Predicted Ground Movements Measured Settlements Effects on the Building and Remedial Measures Damage Assessment Remedial Measures Structural Response: Actual vs Predicted Background to the Risk Assessment Evaluation of Actual Response Key Lessons Learned Conclusions A Triple Irony Beware the Oddball – Reflections on Peck (1998)References Boston Central Artery Tunnel Jacking (1991–2001)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction The Project Geology Original Design Concept Innovations in Tunnel Jacking Achieving Agreement to Use the OM A Dramatic Simplicity ‘A Rose by Any Other Name’Implementation of the OM The Primary Objective Solving the Spatial Challenges The Process for Tunnel Jacking Construction Activities Causing Ground Movements Installation of Diaphragm Walls Forming the Thrust Pits Jet Grouting of the Low Level In-Situ Strut Bulk Excavation of the Thrust Pits Installation of Vertical Freeze Pipes Heave and Lateral Movement of the Ground during Freezing Ground Movements during Tunnelling Operations Longer-Term Ground Movements during Thawing and Consolidation Instrumentation and Monitoring Railway Track Monitoring Diaphragm Wall Monitoring Ground Movement and Groundwater Monitoring Managing Interfaces Fostering a Collaborative Approach Teamwork Extending the Limits of Progressive Modification Results Conclusions References Irlam Railway Embankment (1996–1998)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Overview Geology Bridge Assessment Project Constraints Evaluation of Embankment Options Identifying Viable Options Potential Adverse Effects on Bridge Foundations Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Implementation of the OM Trigger Levels and Contingency Measures Instrumentation and Monitoring Pre-load Embankment Construction Removal of Pre-Load and EPS Embankment Construction Conclusions References Heathrow Airport Airside Road Tunnel Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Portal Structures and Tunnels Geology Base Case Design Construction Sequence Retaining Wall Design Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Promoting Innovation Addressing the Issue of Precedent Implementation of the OM A Big Challenge at a Small Scale The Breakthrough Concept Instrumentation, Trigger Levels, Contingencies and Measured Performance Innovation in Blinding Struts Interface with the Piccadilly Line Tunnel Implementing Innovation Conclusions References Raising the 133 m High Triumphal Arch at the New Wembley Stadium (2002–2004)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Overview Foundations and Geotechnics Arch Raising Achieving Agreement to Implement the OM Creating Opportunity Assessment of Foundation Behaviour during Arch Raising Preliminary Pile Load Tests Establishing Trigger Levels and Contingency Measures Foundation Analysis Trigger Levels and Contingency Plans Implementation of the OM Initial Surveys Observed Pile Group Deformation Conclusions References Crossrail Blomfield Box (2012-2015)Introduction Key aspects of Design and Construction Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Potential Hazards Design Conditions Implementation of the OM Dewatering Systems - Potential Failure Scenarios Instrumentation and Monitoring Traffic Light System for the О/И Dewatering System, Observations Outside of the Blomfield Box Displacement of Contiguous Pile Retaining Wall Dewatering System, Observations Inside the Blomfield Box Dewatering System, Modifications during Final Phase of Excavation Summary of Changes Introduced through Implementation of the О/И Conclusions References Crossrail Moorgate Shaft (2012–2014)Introduction Key Aspects of Design and Construction Achieving Agreement to Use the OM Design Objectives and Constraints Creating Opportunity Verification Process Implementation of the OM Key Steps and Activities Verification Point 1 Verification Point 2 Verification Point 3 Summary of Changes Introduced through Implementation of the OM Reflections on the Role of Analysis and Bayesian Updating Conclusions References Reflections on the Advantages and Limitations of the Observational Method The Legacy of Terzaghi and Peck Advantages and Limitations of the OM Lessons Learned from the Case Histories The Importance of Simplicity Key Limitations Heathrow Terminal 5 Tunnels – An Illustrative Case History Progressive Modification – Solving the Issue of the ‘Most Probable’References Some Observations on the Way Forward The 1996 Overview Commercial and Contractual Environment Overview Design and Build Developing Greater Collaboration Value Engineering Clauses Instrumentation and Monitoring General Considerations Performance Limits and Traffic Lights Progressive Modification – A Comprehensive Approach Peer Review Recommendations for OM Practitioners References

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The use of fuzzy angular models and 3D models on a construction method assessment on The Great Wall of China in Jinshanling as a case study of the history and heritage of civil engineering in education
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OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
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