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Managing Global Resources and Universal Processes

Section I: Anthropogenic Chemicals: Human Manufactured and Activities Acaricides Introduction Spider Mite Pests A Big Drain from the Feeding of Such Small Pests Spider Mite Outbreaks Are Promoted by Hot, Dry Weather Smothering Agents Organochlorines Organophosphates and Carbamates Organotins Propargite Amidines Ovicides Antimetabolites Tetronic Acids Application Technology Combating Miticide Resistance References Endocrine Disruptors Introduction Hormones, Reproductive Aspects, and EDCs Screening Assays and Biomarkers for EDCs Guidelines for Regulatory Purposes Overview of EDC Exposure Dealing with Environment EDC Emission Conclusion References Herbicides Herbicide Discovery Herbicide Classification Components of Herbicide Action Herbicide Selectivity Herbicide Mode of Action Herbicide Resistance in Weeds Herbicide-Resistant Crops Safety and Environmental Fate of Herbicides References Herbicides: Non-Target Species Effects Introduction History, Types of Herbicides, and Their Use Benefits to Agriculture and Forest Management Herbicide Use and Exposure to Primary Producers Herbicide Toxicity to Humans and Animals Toxicity to Plants and Effects to Terrestrial Habitats Factors Interacting with Herbicide Effects Measuring Phytotoxicity Conclusion Acknowledgments References Insecticides: Aerial Ultra-Low-Volume Application Introduction Right Place Right Time Right Dose Novel Application Technology Insecticide Residue Monitoring Conclusion Acknowledgments References Neurotoxicants: Developmental Experimental Testing Introduction Behavioral Aspects of DNT Brain Development and Maturation Periods of Vulnerability Protocols for Experimental Studies Conclusion Acknowledgments References Persistent Organic Pesticides Introduction Persistent Organic Pesticides under the Stockholm Convention Major Issues concerning Persistent Organic Pesticides Alternative Approaches Global Initiatives to Promote Alternatives to DDT Conclusion References Pollutants: Organic and Inorganic Introduction Organic Pollutants Inorganic Pollutants Conclusions References Pollution: Genotoxicity of Agrotoxic Compounds Introduction Reproductive Toxicity Human and Environmental Genotoxicity Pesticide Genotoxicity Assessment Biomonitoring Tests for Some Novel Materials: The Case of Nanomaterials Future Concerns and New Genomic Techniques Conclusion Acknowledgments References Pollution: Pesticides in Agro-Horticultural Ecosystems Introduction Pesticide Consumption Trend Pesticides Use Pattern in India Impact of Pesticide Use on the Pollinators Impact of Pesticide Use on Natural Enemies Pesticide Use and Bt Transgenics Pesticide Use in Weeds Pesticide Residues in Agro-Horticultural Ecosystems Approaches for Pesticide Use Reduction References Pollution: Pesticides in Natural Ecosystems Introduction History of Pesticides and Pesticide Problems How Do Pesticides Sprayed on Agro-/Horti-Ecosystems Enter Natural Ecosystems?Pesticide Pollution and Natural Ecosystems Alternatives for Pesticide Problems References Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)Introduction Chemical Identity Properties of PCBs Global Distribution and Sources Environmental Fate Volatilization Adsorption and Desorption on Organic Matter and Bioavailability Biodegradation and Transformation Bioaccumulation, Bioconcentration, and Biomagnification Health Effects Regulations Disposal of PCBs from the Environment Conclusion Glossary Acknowledgments References Toxic Substances Introduction Petroleum Hydrocarbons PCBS and Dioxins Pesticides Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Organometallic Compounds Detergents (and Soaps)Synthetic Polymers and Xenobiotics Applied in the Plastics Industry References Section II: Natural Elements and Chemicals Allelochemics Terminology Natural Occurrence Practical Applications Conclusion References Aluminum Introduction Chemistry of Al Al Uses and Production Sources of Al in Soil Alleviation of Al in Soils Sources of Al in Water Alleviation of Al in Water Sources of Al in the Atmosphere Sources of Al in Foodstuff, Cosmetics, Pharmaceuticals, and Johannes Bernhard Workplaces Environmental Toxicology of Al Conclusion Acknowledgments References Boron: Soil Contaminant Introduction Boron–Soil Interaction Boron–Plant Interaction References Cadmium: Toxicology Introduction: Dispersion and Application Toxicity and Ecotoxicity References Carbon: Soil Inorganic Introduction Soil Processes Dissolved IC Cycling Land Use Land Clearing Cropping and Tillage Fertilization and Liming Humid Region Irrigation Arid and Semiarid Region Irrigation Sodic Soil Reclamation Impact of IC on Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Conclusion References Chromium Introduction Health Effects Sources of Chromium and Occurrence in Natural Waters and Water Supplies Solubility Controls of Chromium Concentrations in Water Oxidation-Reduction Chemistry of Chromium in Natural Waters Conclusion References Cobalt and Iodine Soil Cobalt Cobalt Deficiency Soil Iodine Iodine Deficiency Conclusions References Copper Copper and Plants Copper as an Essential Element Plant Growth on Copper-Deficient Soils Plant Growth on High-Copper Soils References Globalization Introduction Understanding Globalization: The Debate, Perspectives, and the Complexity of the Environmental Challenges Globalization, Sustainable Economic Growth, and Environmental Impacts Global Governance: Organizations, Policy Efforts, and Environmental Justice Future of the Global Environment: Research, Controversies, Current Successes, and Future Expectations Conclusions References Heavy Metals Introduction General Chemistry Abundance in Rocks and Soils Biological Effects References Inorganic Carbon: Composition and Formation Introduction Composition Formation Pedogenic vs. Geogenie Carbonate Models of Carbonate Formation Per Descensum Model Per Ascensum Model In Situ Model Biogenic Model Conclusions References Lead: Ecotoxicology Introduction: Dispersion and Application Ecotoxicity and Environmental Problems of Lead Abatement Methods for Reduction of Lead Pollution Use of Integrated Environmental Management in the Case of Lead Contamination References Lead: Regulations Introduction Review of Previous Analyses Valuing IQ-Related Benefits Valuing Cardiovascular Risk Reductions Other Challenges and Opportunities Conclusions Acknowledgments References Mercury Introduction Sources of Mercury Pollution Pollution Effects Important Mercury Processes Abatement of Mercury Pollution References Mycotoxins Introduction Five Important Mycotoxins Mycotoxins and Pesticides Occupational Exposures Conclusion References Nitrogen Introduction Nitrogen Cycle: General Nitrogen Transformations in the Soil Nitrogen Input Processes Nitrogen Uptake by Plants Nitrogen Loss Processes References Phenols Introduction Origin, Properties, and Application of Phenol and Its Derivatives Distribution, Transport, and Conversion of Phenol and Its Derivatives in the Biosphere Environmental Impact of Phenol and Its Derivatives Identification and Quantification of Phenol and Its Derivatives Conclusion References Phosphorus: Agricultural Nutrient Introduction Perspective on Phosphorus Phosphorus Behavior in Soils Dynamic Nature of Phosphorus in Soils Global Fertilizer Use and Phosphorus Sources Implications for Phosphorus Loss Phosphorus Losses and Mitigation Strategies Conclusions References Potassium Potassium in Plants Potassium in Soils Potassium in Plant–Soil Interactions Assessing and Managing Potassium Fertility Conclusions References Radionuclides Introduction Fate and Transport Processes Conclusions References Rare Earth Elements Introduction Origins of Soil Rare Earth Elements Chemical Speciation of Rare Earth Elements in Soils Uptake of Rare Earth Elements by Plants Crop Response to Rare Earth Elements Conclusions References Strontium Introduction Strontium in Soils Strontium Uptake by Plants Conclusion References Sulfur Introduction Sulfur in Soils Biological Aspects of Sulfur in Soils Physico-Chemical Aspects of Sulfur in Soils Sulfur Emissions Sulfur Fertilizers Agro-Ecological Aspects of Sulfur Acknowledgments References Sulfur Dioxide Introduction SO[sub(2)] Standards in the World—Ambient Air Quality Measurements of Concentration of SO[sub(2)] from Natural Sources Methods of Measurements of SO[sub(2)] Concentration in Flue Gases Overview of Technologies Used to Reduce Sulfur OxideEmissions (Removal from Anthropogenic Sources)Semidry Techniques Dry Techniques Conclusion References Vanadium and Chromium Groups Introduction Geochemical Occurrences Overview of Current Uses and Environmental Levels Metabolism and Health Effects Tungsten Conclusion References Section III: Basic Environmental Processes Adsorption Introduction Adsorption Theory Adsorbents and Their Applications in Water and Wastewater Treatment Progress in Research on Adsorption Process in Water Purification References Cadmium and Lead: Contamination Introduction Chemical Properties Occurrences Production and Uses Detection Environmental Levels Toxicological Effects Regulations and Control Conclusion References Heavy Metals: Organic Fertilization Uptake Introduction Sources of Organic Fertilizers Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals Conclusions References Inorganic Carbon: Global Carbon Cycle Introduction Mean Residence Time Weathering Atmospheric Derivation Effect of Human Activities Conclusions References Inorganic Carbon: Modeling Introduction Compartment Model and Simulations of Pedogenic Isotopes in Calcic Soils Conclusions References Inorganic Compounds: Eco-Toxicity Introduction: The Elements and Their Biological Effect Pollution and Ecotoxicological Problems of 18 Elements References Leaching Introduction Factors Influencing Leaching Future Concerns References Aquatic Communities: Pesticide Impacts Introduction Measuring Impacts on Aquatic Communities Assessing Risk of Pesticide Impacts on Aquatic Communities Some Examples of Pesticide Impacts on Aquatic Communities Reducing Risk of Pesticide Impacts on Aquatic Communities Recent Advances and Outstanding Issues Conclusions References Phosphorus: Riverine System Transport Introduction Riverine Processes Integrating Riverine Processes and Land Use Impacts on P Transport Defining P-Related Impairment in Flowing and Lake Waters for Targeted Remediation Implications to Watershed Management Implications for Water Quality Response Conclusions References Nitrogen: Biological Fixation Introduction Sources of BNF in Agricultural Systems Conclusions References Nutrients: Best Management Practices Introduction Nutrient Application Rates Timing of Nutrient Applications Nutrient Placement Variable-Rate Fertilizer Technologies Manure Management Irrigation Water Management Soil Conservation Practices Farm Nutrient Management Plans Conclusion References Nutrients: Bioavailability and Plant Uptake Soil Plant System Diffusion Importance of Root Hairs Boundary Conditions and Nutrient Entry Conclusions References Nutrient–Water Interactions Introduction Water and Nutrient Availability Nutrient and Water Use Efficiency Irrigation Water Quality and Fertilizer Application Environmental Quality Conclusions References Pollution: Non-Point Source Introduction Contaminant Interactions Implications to Soil and Environmental Quality Sampling for Non-Point Source Pollution Management and/or Remediation of Non-Point Source Pollution Preventing Water Pollution Global Challenges and Responsibility References Pollution: Point Sources Introduction Nature and Sources of Contaminants Contaminant Interactions in Soil and Water Sampling for PS Pollution References Radioactivity Introduction Radioactive Decay Natural and Artificial Radionuclides Anthropogenic Radionuclides Sources of Radionuclides in the Environment and Pollution Problem Solution to Radioactive Pollution Conclusion References Telecouplings Introduction Telecoupling Research Conclusions References

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