Exploring synergies and differences in Western, African and Chinese communication culture

In seeking to understand similarities and differences in communication, a cross-cultural approach allows for the pooling together and juxtaposition of existing communication literature on different cultures leading to both knowledge creation and insights. Collier, Ribeau, and Hetch (1986) assert that, in addition to culture differences, differences in communication may be attributable to different worldviews and philosophies. Ono

Sino-African intercultural effectiveness 109 (2013, p. 92) concurs, stating that “without an understanding of worldviews, without an understanding of cultural complexity and cultural syncretism, without an in-depth understanding of cultural difference, not much of value can be said about people by outsiders”. It can therefore be inferred that differences in guiding philosophies lead to differences in communication practices and characteristics. The findings of Yum (1988) support this claim, where East Asian and North American patterns of communication were compared. East Asian cultures were seen to emphasise social relationships while North American culture placed emphasis on individualism.

In this section, insights developed from a synthesis of literature on culture and communication in Western, African and Chinese cultures are presented. The synthesis of literature is carried out on the basis of the conceptual framework for understanding ICE as presented in Figure 5.1. A cross-section of empirical, non-empirical and philosophical literature was synthesised, resulting in a theoretical view of communication within the different cultures which brings to light the communication synergies and/or gaps in Western, African and Chinese cultures. The final outcome is the development of a theoretical framework depicting communication in Western, African and Chinese cultures which can be validated empirically.

Western, African and Chinese cultures are considered in a synthesis of literature pertaining to ICE in Chinese organisations in Africa. As mentioned, the inclusion of Western cultures is critical in view of the influence that the West has had on the very emergence of the formal economic organisation in Africa. In addition, it provides a point of comparison that may enhance the understanding of non-Western cultures. It is important to highlight that when speaking of African, Chinese or Western cultures, the aim is not to “essentialise” these cultures or “gloss over the heterogeneity and diversity that resides within them” (Martin & Nakayama, 2010, p. 91). Essentialism is the tendency to view human life as having central defining features (Nussbaum, 1992). In the current analysis, the aim is therefore not to imply that all Africans are the same, nor that all Chinese are the same. While there is acknowledgement that Chinese and African cultures may not exist in their purest form because of historical and other influences, there is consensus that in both Chinese and African cultures certain core values endure and continue to form the guiding principles for day-to-day living (Narh, 2013; Salo-Lee, 2006). In Chinese cultures, core values are principally based on Confucianism, while African culture has communalism and Ubuntu at its heart.

Figure 5.2 presents a comparative theoretical framework of communication in Western, African and Chinese cultures. This has been developed on the basis of the enablers of ICE as perceived in the different cultures. The framework is inspired by the work of Chen (2015) who compares the

WESTERN CULTURE

AFRICAN CULTURE

CHINESE CULTURE

(1) VALUES AND GUIDING PHILOSOPHIES

Individualism, Autonomy, Egalitarianism, Mastery Collectivism, Communalism, Ubuntu/Humanism Confucianism, Guanxi, Face, Collectivism

• (2) SELF-PERCEPTIONS
• (4) DEGREE OF INTERACTION
• (5) OBJECTIVE OF COMMUNICATION
• (6) THINKING PROCESS

• • In all cultural groups there exist opposite value orientations in each set of paradigmatic assumptions along a continuum, with cultures tending to lean to one extreme over the other in interaction.
• * African cultures tend to be more similar to Chinese cultures though a complete overlap is not posited. This position is inferred from literature reviewed.

Figure 5.2 A theoretical framework for understanding ICE (congruence) in Western, African and Chinese cultures.

Source-. Chigwendere, 2016

Sino-African intercultural effectiveness 111 paradigmatic assumptions of American culture (herein taken to represent Western cultures) and Chinese culture. Chen’s framework is adapted to incorporate the assumptions of African cultures, also reflecting patterns of communication as inferred from literature. Figure 5.2 is columnar and flows from top to bottom, left to right.