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Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications

Preface INTRODUCTION NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES LIPID-BASED NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES Nanoemulsions Ingredients Used for Preparing Nanoemulsions Oil Emulsifiers Stabilizers Preparation Methods Nanoliposomes Ingredients Used for Preparing Nanoliposomes Phospholipids Cholesterol Phenolic Compounds Solvent Preparation Methods Thin Film Hydration Solvent Injection Method Detergent Removal Method Reverse Phase Method Nanolipid Carriers Ingredients Used for Preparing SLNs and NLCs Liquid Oil Solid Lipid Stabilizer Preparation Methods Microemulsion Method High-Pressure Homogenization NATURE-INSPIRED NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES Caseins Ingredients Used for Preparing Casein Nanodelivery Vehicles Preparation Methods Cyclodextrins Ingredients Used for Preparing CD Nanocarriers Preparation Methods Amylose Nanocarriers SPECIAL-EQUIPMENT-BASED NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES Electrospinning Preparation of Electrospun Fibers Polymer Solution Properties Processing Conditions Ambient Conditions Electrospraying Preparation of Electrosprayed Nanocarriers Nanospray Drying Preparation of Nanospray-Dried Particles Droplet Generation Drying of Droplets Particle Collection Optimizing the Nanospray-Drying Process BIOPOLYMER-BASED NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES Single Biopolymer Nanoparticles Protein Nanoparticles (Desolvation Method)Polysaccharide Nanoparticles (Nanoprecipitation Method)Starch Nanoparticles Complexation of Biopolymers Molecular Forces Between Biopolymers Cosolubility Complex Coacervation Preparation of Different Complexes Protein—Polysaccharide Interactions Polysaccharide—Polysaccharide Complexes Protein—Protein Complexes Nanogels Ingredients Used to Prepare Nanogels Protein Nanogels Polysaccharide Nanogels Chemical Polymer Nanogels Preparation Methods Nanotubes OTHER NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES Nanocrystals Encapsulated (Coated) Nanocrystals Preparation Methods The Bead-Milling Process High-Pressure Homogenization Combination Technologies Dendrimeters CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Nanoencapsulation of Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidants INTRODUCTION ANTIOXIDANTS PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS NANOENCAPSULATION PROCESS OF PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS AND ANTIOXIDANTS LIPID-BASED FORMULATIONS FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF PHENOLICS AND ANTIOXIDANTS Nanoencapsulation of Phenolics and Antioxidants in Nanoemulsions High-Energy Methods Low-Energy Methods Nanoencapsulation of Phenolics and Antioxidants in Nanoliposomes Nanoencapsulation of Phenolics and Antioxidants in Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Nanoencapsulation of Phenolics and Antioxidants in Nanostructured Lipid Carriers BIOPOLYMER-BASED TECHNOLOGIES FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF PHENOLICS AND ANTIOXIDANTS EQUIPMENT-BASED TECHNOLOGIES FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF PHENOLICS AND ANTIOXIDANTS Electro-Spinning and Electro-Spraying Nano-Spray Drying CONCLUSION AND FURTHER REMARKS REFERENCES Nanoencapsulation of Fish Oil and Essential Fatty Acids INTRODUCTION TO ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS Source of Essential Fatty Acids Health Benefits of Essential Fatty Acids Coronary Heart Disease Rheumatoid Arthritis Brain Development and Function Cancer Mental Health Infant Health Stability of the Fish Oil and Essential Fatty Acids Nanoencapsulation of Fish Oil and Essential Fatty Acids LIPID FORMULATION NANOENCAPSULATION OF FISH OIL AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS Encapsulation by Nanoemulsions Encapsulation by Nanoliposomes Encapsulation by Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Encapsulation by Nanostructured Lipid Carriers NATURAL NANOCARRIERS FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF FISH OIL AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS Nanoencapsulation by Caseins Nanoencapsulation by Cyclodextrins EQUIPMENT BASED-NANOENCAPSULATION OF FISH OIL AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS Nanoencapsulation by Electrospinning Nanoencapsulation by Electrospraying Nanoencapsulation by Nanospray Dryer BIOPOLYMER-BASED NANOENCAPSULATION OF FISH OIL AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS OTHER NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR FISH OIL AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS RELEASE, CHARACTERIZATION, AND SAFETY OF NANOENCAPSULATED FISH OIL AND ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID Controlled Release of Fatty Acids From Nanocapsules Instrumental Analysis and Characterization of Nanocapsules Containing Fish Oil Physical Characterization Methods Chemical Characterization Methods Safety and Regulatory Issues of Fish Oil-Loaded Nanocapsules CONCLUSION AND FURTHER REMARKS REFERENCES Nanoencapsulation of Vitamins INTRODUCTION NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS Vitamin Deficiency Outcomes Dosage of Vitamin Consumption Vitamin Fortification in Food Products Vitamin Retention under Food Processing Conditions MICROENCAPSULATION OF VITAMINS Spray Drying Spray Chilling and Cooling Emulsion Techniques Fluidized Bed Coating Liposome Carriers Coacervation NANOENCAPSULATION OF VITAMINS Nanoemulsions Nanohydrogels and Nano-Organogels Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (SLNs and NLCs)Biopolymer Nanoparticles Nanoliposomes Cyclodextrins Nanofibers and Electrosprayed Nanoparticles CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS REFERENCES Nanoencapsulation of Food Antimicrobial Agents and Essential Oils INTRODUCTION TRADITIONAL AND NATURAL FOOD ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS Traditional Chemical Preservative Agents Natural Antimicrobial Agents Animal Sources Chitosan Lysozyme Lactoferrin Plant Sources Essential Oils Plant Extracts Microbial Sources Nisin Natamycin Problems and Opportunities of Natural Antimicrobials NANOENCAPSULATION OF FOOD ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS Nanoencapsulation of Antimicrobials through Lipid-Formulation Techniques Nanoemulsions Nanoliposomes Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Biopolymer-Based Nanoencapsulation of Food Antimicrobial Agents Protein-Based Biopolymers Carbohydrate-Based Biopolymers Equipment-Based Nanoencapsulation of Food Antimicrobials Nanocomposites of Food Antimicrobial Agents Other Nanoencapsulation Technologies for Food Antimicrobial Agents RELEASE, CHARACTERIZATION, AND SAFETY OF NANOENCAPSULATED FOOD ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS Controlled Release of Antimicrobial Agents from Nanocapsules Instrumental Analysis and Characterization of Antimicrobial-Loaded Nanocapsules Physicochemical Properties Safety of Nanoencapsulated Food Antimicrobial Agents APPLICATIONS OF NANOENCAPSULATED FOOD ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS Aqueous Food Systems Solid Food Matrix Fresh Produces and Vegetables CONCLUSION REFERENCES Nanoencapsulation of Natural Food Colorants INTRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD COLORANTS Heme Pigments Chlorophylls Carotenoids Flavonoid Dyes Anthocyanins Betalains Miscellaneous Colorants STABILITY AND BIOAVAILABILITY OF FOOD COLORANTS ENCAPSULATION OF NATURAL COLORS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY NANOENCAPSULATION OF NATURAL FOOD COLORANTS Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Nanoencapsulation of Food Colors Nanoliposomes Nanoemulsions Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Nature-Inspired Nanocarriers for Nanoencapsulation of Food Colors Molecular Inclusion Complexes with Cyclodextrins Caseins Nanoparticles Nanocrystals Nanoencapsulation of Food Colorants by Special Equipment Nanoencapsulation of Food Colorants by Biopolymer Nanoparticles Other Methods of Nanoencapsulation for Food Colors SAFETY ASPECTS OF NANOENCAPSULATED FOOD COLORANTS APPLICATION OF ENCAPSULATED COLORANTS IN FOOD FORMULATIONS CONCLUSION AND FURTHER REMARKS REFERENCES FURTHER READING Nanoencapsulation of Flavors INTRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD BIOFLAVORS Primary Flavors Secondary Flavors FLAVORS FROM DIFFERENT ORIGINS Flavors Derived from Saccharides Flavors Derived from Amino Acids Flavors Derived from Lipids FLAVORS IN SOME FOOD PRODUCTS Flavors Derived from Cheeses Flavors Derived from Red Meat Flavors Derived from Bakery Products Flavors Derived from Fruits and Vegetables MICROENCAPSULATION OF FOOD FLAVORS Chemical Procedures for Encapsulation of Flavors Coacervation Co-crystallization Mechanical Procedures for Encapsulation of Flavors Spray Drying and Spray Coating Freeze Drying Spray Chilling/Cooling Extrusion Simple Extrusion Double Capillarity Extrusion Instruments Dual Capillary (coaxial)Centrifugal Extrusion Recycling Centrifugal Extrusion NANOENCAPSULATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOOD FLAVORS Nanoemulsification of Food Flavors Electrospraying and Electrospinning for Nanoencapsulation of Flavors Nanoencapsulation of Flavors by Biopolymeric Nanocarriers Nanoencapsulation of Flavors by Milk Proteins CONCLUSION REFERENCES Nanoencapsulation of Enzymes, Bioactive Peptides, and Biological Molecules INTRODUCTION ENZYMES Stability of Enzymes PEPTIDES PHYTOSTEROLS NUCLEIC ACIDS LIPID FORMULATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES Nanoemulsions Nanoliposomes Nanostructured Lipid Carriers NATURAL NANOCARRIERS FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES Casein Nanocapsules Nanocrystal Nanocapsules Cyclodextrin Nanocapsules EQUIPMENT BASED TECHNOLOGIES FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES Enzyme Immobilization Based on Electrohydrodynamic Processes Nucleic Acid Encapsulation Based on Electrohydrodynamic Processes Protein Encapsulation Based on Electrohydrodynamic Processes BIOPOLYMER BASED TECHNOLOGIES FOR NANOENCAPSULATION OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES Protein Nanogels Chitosan-Based Nanogels Alginate-Based Nanogels Nanotubes Starch Nanoparticles RELEASE OF PEPTIDES FROM NANOSCALE DELIVERY SYSTEMS SAFETY OF NANOENCAPSULATION SYSTEMS LOADED WITH BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES CONCLUSION AND FURTHER REMARKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES FURTHER READINGS Nanoencapsulation of Minerals INTRODUCTION ENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES OF MINERALS Physicomechanical Methods Freeze-Drying Fluidized Bed Coating Spray-Drying Spray-Chilling/Cooling Extrusion Chemical Methods Liposome Entrapment Niosome Entrapment Fatty Acid Esters Coacervation Modified Solvent Evaporation Emulsification Salt-Induced Cold Gelation NANOENCAPSULATION OF MINERALS Nanoliposomes Nanoemulsification Cyclodextrin Inclusion Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Biopolymer Nanoparticles Ionotropic Gelation Coacervation APPLICATION OF ENCAPSULATED MINERALS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY Fortification of Dairy Products with Encapsulated Minerals Milk Yogurt Cheese Salt Fortification With Encapsulated Iron and Iodine Dual Fortified Salt Triple Fortified Salt Use of Encapsulated Iron in Fortifying Cereals and Bakery Products Encapsulated Minerals in Fortifying Other Foods USE OF MINERAL NANOPARTICLES CONCLUSION AND FURTHER REMARKS REFERENCES Release, Characterization, and Safety of Nanoencapsulated Food Ingredients RELEASE OF NANOENCAPSULATED FOOD INGREDIENTS Controlled-Release Mechanisms Analytical Methods for Measuring Release BIOLOGICAL FATE OF NANOENCAPSULATED FOOD INGREDIENTS MUCOADHESIVE DELIVERY SYSTEMS Characterization of the Mucus Layer Stages of Mucoadhesion Mucoadhesion Theories CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOENCAPSULATED FOOD INGREDIENTS Morphology Electron Microscopy Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy Atomic Force Microscopy Size Static Light Scattering Dynamic Light Scattering Gravitational Settling and Centrifugation Laser-Induced Breakdown Detection Electrical Characteristics Surface Composition Physicochemical Characterization X-ray Diffraction Differential Scanning Calorimetry Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Optical Characterization SAFETY AND TOXICITY OF FOOD NPs EMPLOYED IN FOOD PRODUCTS Genotoxicity and Epigenetic Regulations Modified by NPs DNA Methylation Histone Alteration miRNAs as Gene Expression Modifiers In Vivo and In Vitro Assays POSSIBLE HEALTH RISKS AND CARCINOGENESIS INDUCED BY NPs IN SOME ORGANS AND BODY SYSTEMS Neurotoxicity Neurotoxicity Mechanisms Stimulated by NPs Hepatotoxicity In Vitro Tests In Vivo Tests GLOBAL NANOFOOD REGULATIONS FUTURE TRENDS CONCLUSION REFERENCES

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An Introduction to Nanoencapsulation Techniques for the Food Bioactive Ingredients
Seid Mahdi Jafari Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran Nanocapsules are defined in the literature as mostly an oily or hydrophilic cavity surrounded by a thin wall material (Jafari, Fathi, & Mandala, 2015). A broad variety of wall materials,...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
In Vitro Studies on Food Bioactives Using DCs (Table 17.3)
The immunomodulatory effects of food bioactives can be broadly divided in 'activation', 'suppression' or 'no detectable effect'. Table 17.3 shows that with regard to food proteins immune activation is generally the anticipated endpoint. It should however be considered that other food constituents instead...
(The Impact of Food Bioactives on Health)
ASSESSING THE VULNERABILITY OF FOODS AND INGREDIENTS TO EMA
EMA presents a different set of challenges from those involved in preventing either unintentional foodborne contamination or terrorism through intentional contamination of food supplies. With both unintentional foodborne contamination and terrorism, the identification of consumer illnesses or deaths...
(Food protection and security: preventing and mitigating contamination during food processing and production)
Nanoencapsulation of Food Antimicrobial Agents and Essential Oils
Yue Zhang1*, Huaiqiong Chen2'* and Kang Pan3 University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States, 2Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States, 3Kellogg Company, Battle Creek, MI, United States Food antimicrobials are chemicals that stop or inhibit the growth of microorganisms,...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
NANOENCAPSULATION OF FOOD ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
Many techniques have been developed for the fabrication of nanoencapsulated antimicrobials. These methods can be classified into two main categories according to whether the formulation requires a high mechanical energy (top-down method) or can be achieved directly without applying mechanical energy...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
Biopolymer-Based Nanoencapsulation of Food Antimicrobial Agents
Biopolymers have found tremendous applications in nanoencapsulation of antimicrobial agents. Various sources serve as origins of biopolymers, which could be either animal or plant based, in their native form or being modified for specific goals such as controlled or target delivery. Commonly used biopolymers...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
Equipment-Based Nanoencapsulation of Food Antimicrobials
Electrospinning and electrospraying are two modes of electrohydrodynamic processes that utilize electrically charged jet to spin or spray polymer solution for production of fibers or particles (Bhushani and Anandharamakrishnan, 2014). The concentrations of polymer solution for two techniques are different....
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Nanoencapsulation of Food Colors
Most of the natural colorants including carotenoids, tocopherols, and flavo- noid pigments have a hydrophobic nature. For the accommodation of these water-insoluble pigments often emulsifiers are required to ensure the stability of these aqueous systems. Furthermore, the presence of digestible lipids...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
Nature-Inspired Nanocarriers for Nanoencapsulation of Food Colors
Natural nanocarriers are currently popular delivery systems for incorporating food bioactive ingredients according to their safe nature and being inexpensive. Also, concerning the properties of the core material our delivery system should be accordingly chosen and engineered physically, chemically, and...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)
Nanoencapsulation of Food Colorants by Special Equipment
A variety of specialized equipment has been applied to the nanoencapsulation of several bioactive ingredients. Some of the most typical techniques for the entrapment of food bioactives are electrospinning, electrospraying, and nano-spray drying. Electrospinning was implemented to nanoencapsulate (3-carotene...
(Nanoencapsulation of Food Bioactive Ingredients: Principles and Applications)