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Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide

Preface Non-Technical Skills A Primer A Story of Revolutions and the Advent of High-Risk Industries Safety at the ‘Sharp End’ of Operations A Stupid Human Broke My Machine A Basic Introduction to Non-Technical Skills The Role of Non-Technical Skills in Day-to-Day Operations The Role of Non-Technical Skills in Responding to Operational Complexity The Relationship between Non-Technical Skills and Safety From Craftsmanship to Non-Technical Skills Open and Closed Skills: Soft and Hard Skills The Assumptions of This Book References The Classroom Is Dead Long Live CRM ...The Need for Training Non-Technical Skills Research into Pilot Error Industry-Driven Development Resource Management on the Flight Deck: The Workshop It All Began in a Classroom ...Hot Tub Therapy and Boomerangs The Escape from the Classroom Seminar Formal Requirements for Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills Joint Training and Team Training Parallel Developments: Anaesthesia Crisis Resource Management The Global Spread of Resource Management Programs The Future Is Bright ...References Adult Learning Principles and Non-Technical Skills What Do We Mean by Training Non-Technical Skills?On the Matter of Definitions Principles of Adult Learning Individual Learning Styles Domains of Learning The Enabling Role of Core Knowledge The Reflective Practitioner Constructivism Stages of Instruction Elaboration Theory Cognitive Load Theory Modelling Behaviour Situated Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeships Instructional Use of Error: Learning from Our Mistakes Competency-Based Training Transfer of Training Adult Learning: A Summary References Principles of Training Non-Technical Skills A Phased Approach to Training of Non-Technical Skills Training Context of Non-Technical Skills Programs Multidisciplinary and Team-Based Training Generic and Abstracted or Tailored and Integrated Attitudinal Change: Demonstrating Relevance and Importance Core Knowledge Development Classroom-Based Training The Use of eLearning Platforms Case Study Techniques Video-Based Case Study Techniques Non-Technical Skill Development and Rehearsal Role-Play Simulation Simulation and Training Non-Technical Skills Simulation and Learning Simulation Fidelity Scenario Design for Simulation-Based Training Overarching Instructional Design Considerations Skill Development and Rehearsal on the Job Mentoring, Coaching and Apprenticeship Models Behavioural Modelling Briefing and Debriefing References Principles of Assessing Non-Technical Skills Competency-Based Assessment of Non-Technical Skills Assessing Skills in Context: Behavioural Marker Systems Key Characteristics of Behavioural Marker Systems Development of Behavioural Markers Validity, Reliability and Sensitivity Rating Scales and Scoring Generic versus Specific Behavioural Marker Systems Integration with Technical Assessment Jeopardy Assessment: Pass or Fail?Objective Assessment Individual or Team Performance?Linked to Technical Failure?Is Poor Non-Technical Performance Reason Enough to Fail?Training Instructors, Calibration and Inter-Rater Reliability Training the Non-Technical Skills Instructor and Assessor Inter-Rater Reliability Biases and Assessment Error Halo Effect Visceral Bias Central Tendency Leniency and Severity Contrast Effect Expert versus Self-Assessment Debriefing Non-Technical Skill Performance Setting Goals and Expectations for the Debrief Facilitation, Not Instruction Promoting Reflection with Use of Video and Other Tools Questions, Probes and Prompting Deeper Discussion Active Listening Techniques Linking Debrief to Rehearsal Unpacking the Cognitive ‘Frame’ of Participants Debriefing for Learning on the Job References Instructional Systems Design Instructional Systems Design Analysis: Identification of Specific Training Needs Design: Specification of Clear Learning Objectives Development: Detailed Curriculum of Training Events and Assessment Tasks Delivery: Instructional Events in the Form of Training and Assessment Evaluation of Training Effectiveness Analysis and Specification of Training Needs Risk-Based Training Needs Analysis Cognitive Task Analysis Cognitive Work Analysis Addressing Organisational and Individual Needs Evidence-Based Training Data from the Safety Management System Gap Analysis Personalised Training Defining Curriculum Outcomes and Instructional Objectives Specifying Curriculum Outcomes Specifying Instructional Objectives Performance Statements Curriculum Design Designing Assessment Tasks Designing Training Events Sequencing Training Events Specifying Equipment and Materials Generating Guidance Material for Instructors and Trainees Implementation and Delivery Learner Engagement Instructor Preparation Evaluation of Training Programs References Training and Assessing Situation Awareness Situation Awareness: A Primer Situation Awareness: Exemplar Case Study Situation Awareness: Core Enabling Knowledge The Basic Model of Situation Awareness A Basic Introduction to Information Processing Distributed Cognition and Distributed Situation Awareness Cue Use and Cue Utilisation Inattentional Blindness Role of Situation Awareness in Error Detection Influence of Distraction, Workload and Other Factors Situation Awareness Recovery Situation Awareness: Skill Development General Targets for Skill Development Individual versus Team Situation Awareness Training Exposure to Factors That Degrade Situation Awareness Situation Awareness: Simulation-Based Training Creating Rich Information Environments Freeze Technique and Reflection/Debrief Controlled Manipulation of Events to Degrade Situation Awareness and Demand Situation Awareness Recovery Situation Awareness: On-the-Job Training Activation and Priming Behavioural Modelling Situation Awareness: Pre-Training Briefing Situation Awareness: Assessment and Behavioural Markers Situation Awareness: Debriefing and Coaching Situation Awareness: Key Resources Case Studies References Training and Assessing Decision-Making Decision-Making: A Primer Decision-Making: Exemplar Case Study Decision-Making: Core Enabling Knowledge Classical Model of Decision-Making Bounded Rationality in Context Recognition-Primed Decision-Making and Fast and Frugal Approaches Heuristics and Cognitive Biases Team Decision Processes Distributed Decision-Making Decision-Making: Skill Development Basic Foundational Skills: Situation Awareness, Risk Assessment and Evaluation Systematic Decision-Making Processes De-Biasing Analogical Reasoning Team-Based Training Decision-Making: Simulation-Based Training Critical Decision Events Building Expertise and a Repository of Experience Reinforcing the Use of Mnemonics Scenarios Designed to Induce Negative Heuristics and Biases Creating Complex and High-Pressure Situations Developing and Maintaining Shared Mental Models Decision-Making: On-the-Job Training Modelling and Expertise Reinforcing Sources of Information and Resources Decision-Making: Pre-Training Briefing Decision-Making: Assessment and Behavioural Markers Avoiding Bias in Assessment Judgements Critical Decision Method Behavioural Markers Decision-Making: Debriefing and Coaching Case Studies References Training and Assessing Communication and Teamwork Skills Communication and Teamwork: A Primer Communication and Teamwork: Exemplar Case Study Communication and Teamwork: Core Enabling Knowledge Models of Communication Modes of Communication: Verbal, Intonation, Non-Verbal and Written Information Exchange and Closed Loop Communication Barriers to Effective Communication and Teamwork Enquiry and Assertiveness Team Coordination Communication and Teamwork: Skill Development Exchanging Information Enquiry and Graded Assertiveness Team Coordination Training Team Self-Correction Training Communication and Teamwork: Simulation-Based Training Low Fidelity and Role-Play Confederates: Scripting Roles to Elicit Specific Strategies Challenging Cultural Norms and Legitimising New Norms Communication and Teamwork: On-the-Job Training The ‘Freeze’ Technique Video-Based Debrief Critical Incident Debrief Communication and Teamwork: Pre-Training Briefing Communication and Teamwork: Assessment and Behavioural Markers Communication and Teamwork: Debriefing and Coaching Communication and Teamwork: Key Resources Case Studies References Training and Assessing Task Management Task Management: A Primer Task Management: Exemplar Case Study Task Management: Core Enabling Knowledge The Role of Planning in Performance Human Information Processing Workload Limitations Indicators of Adverse Workload Conditions Compensatory Control and the Effort Monitor Delegation and Distributed Team Performance Prioritisation of Tasks The Negative Impact of Interruptions Task Management: Skill Development Leadership Effective Planning Techniques Recognition of Adverse Workload Situations Appropriate Compensatory Control Strategies to Maintain Safety Managing Interruptions Prospective Memory Aids Task Management: Simulation-Based Training High-Workload Non-Normal Situations Stress Exposure Training Exposure to and Practice Recovering from Unsafe System States Rehearsal and Extension Task Management: On-the-Job Training Pre-Work Planning Contingency Planning Post-Event Debrief Task Management: Pre-Training Briefing Allowing Training Participants to Plan and Brief Themselves Task Management: Assessment and Behavioural Markers Self-Report Workload Scales Behavioural Markers Task Management: Debriefing and Coaching Task Management: Key Resources Case Studies References The Future of Training and Assessing Nontechnical Skills Summary A More Integrated Approach to Skill Development A More Targeted Approach to Skill Development Harnessing the Potential of New Technologies Building More Responsive Training Systems Training across Distributed Systems A Final Note References

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Formal Requirements for Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills
Given the developments of the 1970s and 1980s, it was only a matter of time before aviation regulatory bodies would require the formal training and assessment of non-technical skills alongside existing requirements for training and assessing technical skills. In contrast to the initial work originating...
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)
Training Context of Non-Technical Skills Programs
Every high-risk industry across the globe already has a set of clearly specified training programs that operators must complete on a regular basis. Therefore, each new industry that embraces non-technical skills must situate the new forms of training in an already well-established training environment....
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)
Principles of Assessing Non-Technical Skills
Introduction Assessment is a critical component of any training program. At its most basic, assessment can be described as the process of measuring a trainee’s knowledge, skills or attitudes. Assessment serves a number of different purposes in a training program. As introduced in previous chapters,...
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)
The Future of Training and Assessing Nontechnical Skills
This book has set out to provide a practical guide to training and assessing non-technical skills. While it has been written with the range of high-risk industries in mind, it is hoped that much will also have been relevant to any modern and future workplace. The first part of the book has set...
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)
Training Methods for Non-Technical Skills
For individuals and teams to perform effectively in high-risk environments, they must be proficient in the non-technical skills discussed in the earlier chapters. However, should these non-technical skills need to be introduced or enhanced, what are the most effective training techniques to achieve this?...
(Safety at the sharp end a guide to non-technical skills)
Assessing Non-Technical Skills
Introduction As a growing number of professions begin to identify and train non-technical skills for safety-critical positions, the issue of assessment becomes increasingly relevant. In the context of this book, assessment means the processes of observing, recording, interpreting and evaluating individual...
(Safety at the sharp end a guide to non-technical skills)
Non-technical skills assessment in practice
The final section discusses how behavioural rating systems are used in three different industries: aviation, health care and nuclear power. Aviation As discussed earlier, the aviation community has put considerable emphasis on training flight crew members’ non-technical skills as a crucial factor...
(Safety at the sharp end a guide to non-technical skills)
The Need for Training Non-Technical Skills
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, industrial advancement followed a common cycle of rapid technological development, component or system failure, engineering solutions, and then a short period of stability before further technological advancement. In many industrial contexts, lessons were...
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)
What Do We Mean by Training Non-Technical Skills?
As we have introduced already, there is a need for operators in high- risk industries to be able to draw on a range of knowledge, skills and attitudes that go beyond the technical knowledge and skills that enable specific tasks to be undertaken. Take, for example, the control room operator who uses a...
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)
Principles of Training Non-Technical Skills
Introduction Training programs designed specifically to develop non-technical skills can take many forms, and there is certainly no single ‘best practice’ for such programs. However, as we have seen in the opening chapters of this book, research examining the effectiveness of non-technical...
(Training and Assessing Non-Technical Skills: A Practical Guide)