Tourism in Japan: a historical perspective

The history of tourism in Japan is, as Funck and Cooper (2015: 10) observe, ‘dealt with comprehensively in the Western and English-language literature’,

Introduction: Tourism in Japan 5 with oft-cited works by commentators such as Ishimori (1989), Soshiroda (2005) and Vaporis (1995) drawing on equally extensive Japanese language sources on the subject. A useful brief summary of tourism’s historical development is provided by March (n.d.) and in a recent chapter by Crow-Delaney (2019) whilst, in contrast, Funck and Cooper (2015) devote two detailed chapters of their book to the emergence of, first, a travel culture and, second, policy and planning for tourism in Japan. For the purposes of this chapter, therefore, the following sections summarize briefly the key themes to emerge from unsurprisingly similar stories in the literature that trace the evolution of tourism in Japan. The historical development of tourism as a sociocultural phenomenon and of tourism policy are addressed together within the context of distinctive periods in the history of tourism although, inevitably, it is in more modern times that specific policies have not only been in evidence but also have had more influence on the trajectory of tourism in the country.

The roots of Japanese tourism: the early years

As Funck and Cooper (2015: 3) note, the roots of contemporary tourism in Japan are widely considered to lie in the Meiji era from 1868 onwards, in some ways reflecting the origins of modern mass tourism elsewhere during the latter half of the 19th century. However, as Ishimori (1989: 181) explains, ‘travel for pleasure dates back to ancient times in Japan’s history, when only the ruling class could afford it’. For example, there is evidence of travel to hot springs as early as the 8th century whilst, by the 12th century, former emperors were undertaking religious-based travel to Kumano, as were the samurai (the military nobility). Nevertheless, by the 14th century, some wealthier farmers were also able to visit shrines and temples such as those at Ise, Kumano and Koyasan - both now popular contemporary destinations for domestic and international tourists (see Chapter 9) - although generally, the costs and challenges of travel restricted wider participation in this nascent tourism.

It was during the Edo or Tokugawa era (1603-1868), the first of arguably four distinctive periods in its development in Japan, that tourism not only became more accessible to the population at large but also began to emerge ‘as a form of recreation among the masses - a national pastime’ (Vaporis, 1995: 26). A number of factors were influential in this transformation, not least the increasing affluence amongst farmers and peasants; the Edo era, distinctive for national peace and stability after more than a century of civil war, ushered in a long period of economic growth and prosperity. Equally, although official constraints were placed on it, primarily to limit the time that peasants would be away from their fields, travel was allowed (and regulated through the issue of permits) for the purposes of pilgrimage or visiting spas for health reasons (Vaporis, 1995).

Most significant during this period, however, was the development of transport infrastructure, in particular the expansion of the road network in response to the government’s requirement that all feudal lords should residein Edo (now Tokyo) for at least one year in every two. Consequently, not only were a number of major routes established, known collectively as the Five Highways or Gokaido, the most important of which was the Tokaido linking Kyoto and Edo, but also a total of more than 200 post stations, providing accommodation and, subsequently, meals and other personal services for male guests, were developed along the routes. As Ishimori (1989: 184) suggests, this was fundamental to the emergence of ‘travel for pleasure’, as was similarly the provision of lodging and other facilities at then major destinations, such as the Ise Shrine in present day Ise City, Mie Prefecture. According to Ishimori (1989: 185), in 1724 there were 615 lodgings available at the Ise Outer Shrine whilst reflecting, for example, the development of British and European spas in the 18th century (Towner, 1996), towns also grew around major shrines and temples. In addition to accommodation, other facilities and entertainment were available in these towns including theatres, restaurants and souvenir shops - the tradition amongst contemporary Japanese tourists, described by Graburn (1983: 44-46), of buying gifts or miyage for family and friends at home dates back to this period - whilst there were also numerous brothels (Ishimori, 1989).

These developments support Watkins’ (2008: 98) contention that ‘Within the context of Japan’s culture, history and religious beliefs, there exists no clear line between tourism and pilgrimage; the two developed in tandem’. In other words, as in many other countries, early tourism on a relatively large scale in Japan was manifested in religiously motivated travel. This was encouraged in part by the system of permits referred to above and considered in more detail by Vaporis (1995) but perhaps more so by, on the one hand, the efforts of shrines and temples to attract visitors by dispatching priests, or sendatsu, around the country to guide groups of pilgrims to their temple/ shrine, in effect acting as precursors of today’s travel agents (Funck & Cooper, 2015: 14) and, on the other hand, local co-operative associations, or kd. Linked to particular shrines, kd were established around the country with the purpose of both promoting worship at those shrines and raising funds to provide financial support for members, typically the head of the family, to travel there. Nevertheless, as pilgrimage became increasingly popular during the Edo era, ‘sightseeing and pleasure seeking was at least as important, if not more important than the religious goal’ (Fromanek, 1998, cited in Watkins, 2008: 95) or, putting it another way, spiritual experiences became secondary to more earthly pleasures.

One such pleasure was visiting hot springs/spas, or onsen. As discussed later in this chapter, visiting hot springs is fundamental to contemporary domestic tourism in Japan; according to Kamata (2016), there are more than 3,000 hot spring destinations around the country, varying from small, Japanese-style inns (ryokan) with attached onsen to major spa resorts, such as Beppu on the southern island of Kyushu. Not surprisingly, much academic attention is devoted to hot springs as a contemporary wellness tourism resource in Japan (e.g., Erfurt-Cooper, 2014; Ratz, 2013), but visiting hot

Introduction: Tourism in Japan 1 springs as a manifestation of health tourism in Japan was, as noted above, one of the earliest forms of tourism in Japan. For example, Arima, located near Mount Rokkô north east of Kobe city, is a popular hot spring destination that, according to Guichard-Anguis (2002), was patronized by emperors during the 8th century. As narrated by Funck and Cooper (2015: 17-20), tourism to hot springs became more popular during the Edo era not only amongst the elite in society but also amongst the wider population, not coincidentally reflecting the growth in pilgrimage and other religiously motivated travel. Indeed, it can be seen very much as a by-product of pilgrimage tourism although interest in the health benefits of hot springs was enhanced by the publication of books and guides that listed and compared the qualities of onsen around the country. Equally, Ishimori ( 1989) attributes the more general development of tourism in Japan at this time in part to the increasing availability of guidebooks and other publications, including, for example, the Miyako Meisho Zue, or ‘Illustrated Book of Famous Places in the Capital’ (Ishimori, 1989: 189), published in 1780. Along with the infrastructural developments described above and the evolving culture of travel in the country, these undoubtedly contributed to the foundation for the further development of tourism in Japan during the second half of the 19th and into the 20th century.