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Comparative Psychology: Evolution and Development of Brain and Behavior

Biological Evolution Evidence for Evolution Definitions Molecular Evidence Embryology Anatomy Biogeography Paleontology Contemporary Evidence Artificial Selection Logic of Natural Selection Origin and Preservation of Genetic Variability Genotype and Phenotype Mendeliait Genetics Genetic Drift Exons and Introns Structural and Regulatory Genes Mutation Sexual Reproduction Natural Selection Types of Direct Fitness Field Observations and Experiments Measuring Lifetime Reproductive Success Natural Selection and Diversity Traits Contributing to Survival Correlated Traits Darwinian Fitness and Adaptation Units of Natural Selection Glossary References Origin and Evolution of Animals Diversity of Life Taxonomy Five-Kingdom Classification Animal Phyla Geological Background Geological Periods Fossilisation Origin and Evolution of Animals Pre-Cambrian Fossils Cambrian Explosion Molecular Phylogenies Early Evolution of Vertebrates Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Speciation Grades and Clades Glossary References Evo-Devo, Brain, and Behavior Definitions Early Development Early Stages Phylotypic Stage Nature-Nurture Interactions Development of the Vertebrate Nervous System Neuroembryology Axonal Growth and Synapses Neuronal Aggregations Brain Development and Experience Brain Development and Hormones Development and Evolution Genetic Assimilation Behavioral Neophenotypes Heterochrony and Behavior Terminology Behavior Glossary References Simple Nervous Systems and Behavior Invertebrate Phyla An Overview Sponges (Porifera)Comb Jellies (Ctenophora)Cnidarians (Cnidaria)Neural Evolution Behavior and Simple Neural Networks Basic Neural Properties Reflexes Modal Action Patterns Command Neurons Central Pattern Generators Cotransmission in the Feeding CPG of Aplysia Behavioral and Neural Plasticity in Nonassociative Learning Properties of Habituation Habituation in Cnidarians Habituation and Dishabituation of Reflexes and MAPs Short-Term and Long-Term Habituation Neural Basis of Short-Term Habituation The Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans The Mollusk Aplysia californica Neural Basis of Long-Term Habituation The nematode C. elegans The Mollusk Aplysia Short-Term Sensitization Definitions and Behavioral Examples Dishabituation and Short-Term Sensitization in Aplysia Long-Term Sensitization Evolution of Learning Mechanisms in Mollusks Glossary References Evolution of the Vertebrate Brain and Behavior Key Innovations of Vertebrates Body Plan Agnathan Brains Comparative Neurology Pattern and Process Examples of Character Stability Spinal Cord Rhombencephalon Cerebellum Mesencephalon: The Optic Tectum Diencephalon Telencephalon Subdivisions The Fish Telencephalon and Behavior Evolution of the Telencephalon Striatum Limbic System and Behavior Hippocampus Amygdala Origin and Evolution of the Cortex Brain Size Principles of Brain Size Artificial Selection for Brain Size Relative Brain Size Encephalization Evidence From Fossil Species Selective Pressures for Encephalization Encephalization and Behavioral Development Brain Size and Intelligence Behavioral Specializations and the Brain Glossary References Fundamentals of Learning and Cognition Definitions Forms of Conditioning Classical Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning S→R vs. S→S Associations Brain Mechanisms of Actions vs. Habits Distinguishing Conditioning Processes Logic of the Omission Experiment Behavior Classical Conditioning Basic Acquisition Phenomena Contiguity Temporal Factors Acquisition Failure vs. Performance Failure Contextual Modulation of Signal Responding Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Signal and Contextual Fear Compound Conditioning Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Forward Blocking in Fear Conditioning Extinction Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Fear Extinction Inhibitory Conditioning Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Fear Inhibition Occasion Setting Instrumental Conditioning Learning vs. Performance Instruntental Contingencies Definitions Positive Reinforcement Punishment Omission Escape Avoidance Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Interval Timing Response-Reinforcer Contiguity Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Delay Discounting Adjunctive Behavior Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Schedule-Induced Polydipsia Avoidance Learning Acquisition Processes Brain Mechanisms of Avoidance Learning Learned Helplessness Situational Generality of Associative Learning Brain Mechanisms of Learning and Cognition: An Overview Glossary References Comparative Analysis of Learning and Cognition Terminology Comparative Methodology Distinguishing Between Phenomena and Mechanisms Mechanistic Levels of Analysis Species Similarity in Learning Phenomena Species Differences in Learning Phenomena Learning and Cognition in Invertebrates Invertebrates as Models Mollusks: Associative Learning Arthropods: Associative Learning Invertebrate Cognition Neural Mechanisms of Associative Learning in Invertebrates Learning Mutants Learning and Cognition as Adaptations Equipotentiality vs. CS→US Relevance Misbehavior Spatial Learning and Cognition Food Storing Cognitive Mapping Spatial Learning and the Hippocampus Learning, Cognition, and Phylogenetic History Attentional Modulation Latent Inhibition Dimensional Transfer Surprising Nonreward Aftereffects Anticipatory Effects Frustration and Fear in Vertebrates Problem-Solving Behavior Insight Transfer of Learning Glossary References Higher Cognitive Processes From Associative Learning to Cognition Expectancies Representation-Mediated Learning Differential-Outcomes Effect Sonic Implications Spatial Navigation and Mapping A Field Example Cognitive Maps Associative Mechanisms Path Integration Episodic-Like Memory Tool Use and Tool Making From Concepts to Social Cognition Perceptual Concepts Same-Different Concept Causality Number Numerosity Counting Ordinality Addition Communication Language Production Hand Gestures Symbols Language Comprehension Self-Recognition Social Cognition: Theory of Mind Mental Continuity and Discontinuity Glossary References Early Learning and Behavior Ontogenetic Transitions Prenatal and Prehatching Behavior Mammalian Patterns of Development Spontaneous Movements Behavior and Sensory Systems Fetal Learning Long-Term Effects of Early Experience Infant Behavior Patterns of Behavioral Development Sensorimotor Development Infant Learning Neonatal Learning Phenomena Simple Associative Effects Complex Associative Effects Attention and Learning Orienting Response Habituation Latent Inhibition Emotion and Learning Conditioned Fear: Behavior and Brain Mechanisms Conditioned Frustration: Behavior and Brain Mechanisms Infantile Amnesia Early Avian Learning and Cognition Precocial Species Altricial Species Development of Complex Behavior Animal Personality Development of Personality Traits Tool Use and Culture Glossary References Early Social Learning and Behavior From Individual to Social Behavior Imprinting Filial Imprinting Sensitive Period and Reversibility Motivation Learning Brain Mechanisms of Imprinting Imprinting-Like Phenomena in Other Species Altricial Birds Migratory Species Imprinting in Mammals?Reproductive and Social Behavior Sexual Imprinting Mother-Infant Interactions in Mammals Hormones and Maternal Behavior Experience and Maternal Behavior Attachment Properties Rats and Other Mammals Primates Early Experience and Primate Social Behavior Play Behavior Brain Mechanisms of Play Behavior Development of Vocal Behavior Mammalian Vocalizations Avian Vocalizations Calls Vocal Learning in Birds Age-Dependent Plasticity Dialects Social Modulation of Song in Cowbirds Brain Mechanisms of Avian Song Learning Brain Circuit Patterns of Gene Expression From Proximate to Ultimate Causation Glossary References Reproductive and Social Behavior Reproductive Biology and Social Behavior Mechanisms Underlying Social Behavior Individual Recognition Kin Recognition Social Learning Feeding Behavior Predator Recognition Social Reinforcement From Social Reinforcement to Reproductive Success Mating Systems A Classification Polygyny Resource-Defense Polygyny Mate-Defense Polygyny Lek Polygyny Scramble Competition Polygyny Polygyny and Sexual Selection Polyandry Monogamy Manipulating Mating Systems Polygyny Threshold Empirical Tests Alternative Mating Strategies Mating Systems and Brain Evolution Patterns of Reproductive Behavior Agonistic Behavior and Communication Courtship Displays Assessing Fitness in Humans Copiilatory Behavior Infant Care Patterns of Parental Care No Parental Care Uniparental Care Biparental Care Group Care Brood Parasitism Parent-Offspring Conflict Complex Animal Societies Factors Contributing to Social Evolution Subsociality and Eusociality Eusocial Species Haplodiploidy Direct, Indirect, and Group Selection Eusocial Diplodiploids Origin of Eusociality: Back to Direct Fitness Cooperation Reciprocity Prosocial Behavior Glossary References Brain, Behavior, and Evolution of Primates What Is a Primate?Mammalian Evolution Characteristics of Primates Taxonomy and Distribution The Primate Brain Brain Size Encephalization Selective Pressures The Primate Neocortex Evolution of Language What Is Language?Precursors of Language Biology of Language Comparative Anatomy Genetics of Language Genes, Behavior, and Culture Origin of Primates Plesiadapiforms Early Primates New World and Old World Monkeys Hominids Apes Chimpanzee-Human Divergence: Molecular Evidence What Is a Hominin?Taxonomic Problems Hominin Synapomorphies Ape or Hominin?Ardipithecus and the Chimpanzee-Human Divergence Australopithecines Basic Characters Gracile Australopithecines Robust Australopithecines From Australopithecus to Homo Stone Tools Early Homo Remains Homo habilis and Homo rudolphensis Homo erectus From Archaic to Modern Humans Archaic Humans Homo heidelbergensis and Homo rhodesiensis Some Additional Findings Neanderthals Denisovans Modern Humans Early and Recent Modern Humans Ont-of-Africa Migratory IVaves Conclusion: From Oldowan Tools to Climate Change Glossary References

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Biological Evolution