BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY

On what was likely the first newspaper, see Johannes Weber, "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe," German History 24, no. 3 (2006), 387-412. On the colonial press in North America and the different types of early newspapers in England and its American colonies, see Charles V. Clark, The Public Prints: The Newspaper in Anglo-American Culture, 1665-1740 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). A fine history of the first centuries of news and newspapers in Europe is Andrew Pettegree, The Invention of News: How the World Came To Know about Itself (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014). The best and most sophisticated general history of news in the United States is Paul Starr, The Creation of the Media: Political Origins of Modern Communications (New York: Basic Books, 2004). The subtitle is important and accurately foretells that the book argues against views that overemphasize economic or technological determinants of the evolution of news, insisting on the key role of political contexts and political decisions in shaping the media. James Baughman, The Republic of Mass Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006) goes well beyond the study of news to include mass media as conveyances of entertainment but is a very well- informed and thoughtful account of journalism from 1941 to the twenty- first century. No work that we know of has yet done a first-rate job of incorporating the digital transformation of news into an overview and general history of news.

On journalists who are better known as writers of fiction, see Shelley Fisher Fishkin, From Fact to Fiction: Journalism and Imaginative Writing in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985). Mary McCarthy's remarks on factuality and fiction are in Mary McCarthy, The Humanist in the Bathtub (New York: New American Library, 1964) 173-194, pp. 174-175.

On interviewing and the difference between continental European and Anglo-American journalism traditions in the nineteenth century, see Jean Chalaby, "Journalism as an Anglo-American Invention: A Comparison of the Development of French and Anglo-American Journalism, 1830s- 1920s," European Journal of Communication 11, no. 3 (1996), 303-326; and Michael Schudson, "Question Authority: A History of the News Interview in American Journalism, 1860s-1930s," Media, Culture & Society 16, no. 4 (October, 1994), 565-587.

On the history of "objectivity" as a professional value in journalism, the most widely cited study (and we—objectively!—think the best) is Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978). A briefer and more conceptual, less historical account is Michael Schudson, "The Objectivity Norm in American Journalism," Journalism: Theory, Criticism, Practice 2, no. 2 (2001), 149-170. Probably the leading work of sociology on professionalism is Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). A helpful brief definition of professionalism in journalism, and one arrived at in the context of a cross-national comparison, can be found in Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Comparing Media Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 34-37. For international perspectives, probably the most influential article is Jean Chalaby, "Journalism as an Anglo-American Invention," European Journal of Communication 11, no. 3 (1996), 303-326. For the Brazilian case discussed here, see Afonso de Albuquerque and Juliana Gagliardi, "The Copy Desk and the Dilemmas of the Institutionalization of 'Modern Journalism' in Brazil," Journalism Studies 12, no. 1 (2011), 80-91. An excellent new collection of essays that covers both the United Kingdom and the United States is Richard R. John and Jonathan Silberstein-Loeb, eds., Making News: The Political Economy of Journalism in Britain and America from the Glorious Revolution to the Internet (Cambridge: Cambridge United Press, 2015).

A brief, reliable account of the history of the ethnic press is Sally M. Miller, "Distinctive Media: The European Ethnic Press in the United States," in Carl Kaestle and Janice Radway, eds., History of the Book in America, vol. 4, "Print In Motion," pp. 299-311. A fascinating account of the growing importance of Spanish-language news in the United States, especially on television, is America Rodriguez, Making Latino News: Race, Language, Class (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1999). On the African American press, there is a good, brief overview in James P. Danky, "Reading, Writing, and Resisting: African American Print Culture," in Carl Kaestle and Janice Radway, eds., History of the Book in America, vol. 4, "Print In Motion," pp. 339-358. See also Patrick S. Washburn, The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006), especially interesting on the black press in World War II and after.

The best account of the newspapers and the Spanish-American War is Robert C. Hilderbrand, Power and the People: Executive Management of Public Opinion in Foreign Affairs, 1897-1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981). Lewis Gould in The Spanish-American War and President McKinley (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1982) dismisses the role of the New York press out of hand. Mark Matthew Welter's 1970 University of Minnesota Ph.D dissertation, "Minnesota Newspapers and the Cuban Crisis, 1895-1898: Minnesota as a Test Case for the 'Yellow Journalism' Theory" traces the widespread view of press influence on the decision to go to war to post-World War I revisionist historians intent on showing (mistakenly) that British propaganda led the United States into World War I. A useful work is W. Joseph Campbell, Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001).

On early muckraking, Doris Kearns Goodwin offers a useful account in The Bully Pulpit: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Golden Age of Journalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013), pp. 480-487. For investigative reporting from the 1960s on, we have cited Peter Benjaminson and David Anderson, Investigative Reporting. 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976), pp. 3-5; and David L. Protess, Fay Lomax Cook, Jack C. Doppelt et al., The Journalism of Outrage: Investigative Reporting and Agenda Building in America (New York: Guilford, 1991), pp. 3-12.

On new journalism, the classic reading is Tom Wolfe, "The Birth of 'The New Journalism'; Eyewitness Report by Tom Wolfe," New York Magazine, February 14, 1972. A fine collection of early examples of new journalism and essays about the new journalism is Ronald Weber, ed., The Reporter as Artist: A Look at the New Journalism Controversy (New York: Hastings House, 1974).

The most illuminating accounts of 1950s journalism are Carl Sessions Stepp, "The State of the American Newspaper: Then and Now," American Journalism Review (1999); and Meg Greenfield's posthumous memoir, Washington (New York: Public Affairs, 1999). For data on the rise of analytical or contextual journalism, see Katherine Fink and Michael Schudson, "The Rise of Contextual Journalism, 1950s-2000s," Journalism: Theory, Criticism, and Practice 15, no. 1 (2014), 3-20.

On public broadcasting and the unusually low investment in it in the United States, see Rodney Benson and Matthew Powers, "Public Media and Political Independence: Lessons for the Future of Journalism from Around the World," a publication of Freepress, February 10, 2011, http: / / www.freepress.net/blog/11/02/10/public-media-and-political- independence-lessons-future-journalism-around-world.

A useful compilation comparing journalism education internationally is Romy Frohlich and Christina Holtz-Bacha, eds., Journalism Education in Europe and North America: An International Comparison (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 2003).

On fraternization between reporters and politicians in the nineteenth century that today would be widely regarded as unethical, see Donald A. Ritchie, Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991); for the twentieth- century cases cited here that today journalists would almost all consider dubious at best, see Michael Schudson, "Persistence of Vision: Partisan Journalism in the Mainstream Press," in Carl Kaestle and Janice Radway, eds., A History of the Book in America, vol. 4, "Print in Motion" (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), pp. 140-150.

On Watergate, Woodward and Bernstein's own best-selling account is All the President’s Men (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974), still a riveting story—but don't miss the artfully produced film version of the same name. The reporters' much more recent assessment is Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, "40 Years After Watergate, Nixon Was Far Worse Than We Thought," Washington Post, June 8, 2012.

The story of how Walter Cronkite came to be judged the "most popular" American is told in Louis Menand, "Seeing It Now," The New Yorker 88, no. 20 (July 9, 2012), p. 88.

Jurgen Osterhamel, The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014) is a quite extraordinarily wide-ranging 919-page history with much that touches on the edges of our subject here and ten rich pages specifically on "news."

The discussions in chapter 2 about news, journalism, news media values, ethics, credibility, and accountability were informed, in part, by three previous books: The News About the News: American Journalism in Peril by Leonard Downie, Jr. and Robert G. Kaiser (New York: Knopf,

2002); The Elements of Journalism by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel (3rd edition, New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007); and The New Ethics of Journalism: Principles for the 21st Century, edited by Kelly McBride and Tom Rosenstiel (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2013). Similarly, information and analysis about the digital transformation of news and the media had roots in The Reconstruction of American Journalism, a report by Leonard Downie, Jr. and Michael Schudson, with research by C.W. Anderson, published by the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism in 2009 and in slightly abridged form in the November/December 2009 print and digital editions of the Columbia Journalism Review, www.cjr.org/reconstruction/the_reconstruction_ of_american.php.

As attributed in many of the section's answers, much of the research about news media change, content, and audience behavior in the digital age was drawn from various reports of the Pew Research Center's Journalism & Media Project (www.journalism.org) and The Media Insight Project of the American Press Institute and the AP-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research (www.mediainsight.org; see "Project pages" link on the site). Readers seeking reliable aggregations of current news media developments should seek out The American Press Institute's Need to Know digital newsletter (www.americanpressinstitute.org), the Pew Research Center's digital Daily Briefing of Media News (www. journalism.org/daily-briefings/), and the Poynter Institute's digital MediaWire (http://www.poynter.org/tag/mediawire/).

Data about newspaper employment of journalists and about newspaper audiences and revenue is available from the American Society of Newspaper Editors (www.asne.org/content.asp?contentid=121) and the Newspaper Association of America (www.naa.org/Trends-and- numbers.aspx), respectively. Information about staffing and digital evolution at local television stations can be found in surveys by the Radio Television Digital News Association (www.rtdna.org). The Corporation for Public Broadcasting (www.cpb.org) provides information about how news is covered and financed by public radio and television stations.

David Folkenflik of National Public Radio (http://www.npr.org/ people/4459112/david-folkenflik) may be the best reporter currently covering the news media, and the Columbia Journalism Review provides the most breadth and depth. Insightful analysis of evolving news media economics, digital evolution, and audience involvement can be found in blog posts by Rick Edmonds of the Poynter Institute (http:// about.poynter.org/about-us/our-people/rick-edmonds), Ken Doctor of Newsonomics (www.newsonomics.com), and Harvard University's Nieman Journalism Lab (http://www.niemanlab.org/author/ kdoctor/). The extraordinary media commentary of the late David Carr in The New York Times remains worth rereading.

For the discussion of future business models in chapter 3 (perhaps the most vexed question in the entire future of journalism prediction business) we relied on the regular Pew State of the Media reports, which are issued yearly online at http:/ /www.journalism.org/. We also made use of several important academic works that track the history and economics of the media business. James Hamilton, All the News That's Fit to Sell (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004) is still the most theoretically sophisticated look at the business of news. More recent work by Robert Picard has also been essential, especially The Economics and Financing of Media Companies (New York: Fordham University Press,

2011) . The Nieman Journalism Lab at Harvard (http: / / www.niemanlab. org) provides regular snapshots and updates about the state of affairs for the most important media and news companies in the United States, particularly in the regular columns by Ken Doctor. Monday Note (http://www.mondaynote.com/), written by Frederic Filloux and Jean- Louis Gassee, provides a similar service with a greater focus on Europe. For a more comparative overview of the news business we found Rasmus Kleis Nielsen, "Ten Years That Shook the Media World" (online at Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, Oxford, October 2012, http: / / reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Nielsen% 20-%20Ten%20Years%20that%20Shook%20the%20Media_0.pdf) to be essential reading.

The last decade has seen the rebirth of the ethnographic tradition in journalism research, with recent full-l ength scholarly books providing deep insights into the production of news, technologically driven changes to news routines, and the relationship between technology and news more generally. We drew on the insights of one of our authors, C.W. Anderson, contained in his book Rebuilding the News: Metropolitan Journalism in the Digital Age (Philadelphia: Temple University Press,

2012) . Pablo Boczkowski's two pathbreaking ethnographies, Digitizing the News (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004) and News at Work: Imitation in an Age of Information Abundance (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2010) remain essential reading, as does Nikki Usher's Making News at the New York Times (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2014). Branching outside of newspapers, Joshua Braun's This program is brought to you by...: Distributing television news online (New Haven, CT:

Yale University Press, 2015) discusses technology and television news, while Lucas Graves tackles fact-checking and other emerging forms of journalistic labor in Deciding What's True, a PhD dissertation at Columbia University (forthcoming in 2016) forthcoming as a book from Columbia University Press.

To date, there have been few scholarly treatments of the relationship between the culture of Silicon Valley and the norms and routines of more traditional journalism. Some of the research on newsroom metrics and the evaluation of impact, particularly the dissertations and articles of Caitlin Petre and Angele Christin, come close to an analysis of this kind insofar as these audience measurement artifacts embody the general attitude of technology producers toward their users. "Innovation" as a journalistic buzzword and cultural artifact has been understudied as well, with notable exceptions, including Seth Lewis's "Journalism Innovation and Participation: An Analysis of the Knight News Challenge," International Journalism of Communication 5 (2011), 1623-1648, and the forthcoming dissertation research of Elizabeth Hansen, which looks at organization evolution in public radio. There has been far more work done on technologically mediated processes such as computational journalism, data journalism, interactive journalism, and robot journalism. Nikki Usher's book Interactives in the News: Hackers, Data and Code (University of Illinois Press, forthcoming) will be pathbreaking. The special issue of Digital Journalism 3(3), edited by Seth Lewis (Journalism in an Era of Big Data: Cases, Concepts, and Critiques) on data journalism is currently the most helpful resource available on technology, data, and news. C.W. Anderson's Journalistic Cultures of Truth: Data in the Digital Age, forthcoming, will chronicle the history of the use of data as evidence in news work.

The best books on the changing relationship between journalism and the political process, finally, primarily emerge from the political communication literature. A series of books under the imprint of Oxford University Press's Oxford Studies in Digital Politics series lead the way here, including The MoveOn Effect: The Unexpected Transformation of American Political Advocacy, by Dave Karpf (2012); Taking Our Country Back: The Crafting of Networked Politics from Howard Dean to Barack Obama, by Daniel Kreiss (2012); The Hybrid Media System: Politics and Power, by Andrew Chadwick (2013); and Using Technology, Building Democracy: Digital Campaigning and the Construction of Citizenship, by Jessica Baldwin-Philippi (2015). Other important books include Rasmus Kleis Nielsen, Ground Wars: Personalized Communication in Political Campaigns

(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012) and Rodney Benson's Shaping Immigration News: A French-American Comparison (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013). The concept of a "monitorial democracy" is developed by Australian political historian and theorist John Keane in The Life and Death of Democracy (London: Simon & Schuster, 2009) and discussed further in chapter 7 of Michael Schudson, The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency, 19451975 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).