Line managers and flexible working

With the introduction of new legislation (for example, the US Telework Enhancement Act, 2010; the UK Flexible Working Regulations, 2014; and the Flexible Working Act, 2016, in the Netherlands), the opportunity to work flexibly has increased for many employees. In Europe, for example, 65% of employees report having access to flexible work, with 42% making use of flexible work arrangements (European Commission, 2018). Flexible working has been defined as “the opportunity of workers to make choices influencing when, where, and for how long they engage in work-related tasks” (Bal & de Lange, 2015, p. 127). Flexible working can take a number of different forms, including flexibility in when work is done (e.g., flexibility in start and finish times; compressed hours), where it is done (e.g., working from home; remote working), and for how long (e.g., part-time work; reduced load work). These arrangements may be formally reflected in employees’ contracts or arranged informally at their line manager’s discretion. In this chapter, we focus on the role of line managers in making flexible working “work”. “Line managers” refers to those with direct managerial responsibility for other employee(s); the number of personnel within organizations who have line management responsibilities will vary depending on the size and structure of the organization (and in the smallest organizations this may be the owner-manager of the business). We draw on literature from a number of related contexts to evaluate the role of line managers, including research on specific forms of flexible working (e.g., part-time work; remote working/telecommuting; working from home; reduced-load work); research on work-family balance and flexible working, such as family-supportive supervision; and, research on idiosyncratic deals (or i-deals, defined as “voluntary, personalized agreements of a nonstandard nature negotiated between individual employees and their employers regarding terms that benefit each party” (Rousseau et al., 2006, p. 978)). We highlight ways in which the line manager plays a significant role in flexible working, from the influence on who takes up opportunities for flexible working and the form that flexible working takes through personal negotiations, to the ongoing support of flexible working within organizations. The pervasive influence of line managers in the success of flexible working policies provides a significant opportunity not only to improve productivity, but also to promote gender equality and mental well-being in organizations.

Much of the theorizing around line managers’ roles in flexible working is based on a social exchange perspective (Blau, 1964/1986). Although flexible working policies are formulated at the organizational level, they are often implemented at a local level, where agreements must be reached between the line manager and the employee on an individual basis (i.e., an idiosyncratic deal, or i-deal; Rousseau et al., 2006). The quality of the relationship (as reflected in leader-member exchange) has been found to have a significant influence on the successful negotiation of i-deals, including those related to time and location flexibility (Hornung et al., 2014; Rosen et al., 2013). Based on social exchange theory, there is evidence to suggest that allowing employees to work flexibly creates perceived obligations, which leads to employees responding with increased work effort (Kelliher & Anderson, 2010), and more organizational citizenship, that is extra-role behaviours such as helping co-workers (Rousseau et al., 2006). Line managers use the negotiation of i-deals with specific individuals as a way of motivating them. Particularly when i-deals are more of a rarity, the employee will feel more highly valued in comparison to their co-workers, leading to increased motivation, and subsequently enhanced employee performance and engagement in organizational citizenship behaviours. Employees also report enhanced work-related attitudes, including job satisfaction (Singh & Vidyarthi, 2018), and affective commitment (Anand et al., 2010). Empirical work has supported the role of social exchange processes which mediate the effects of i-deals on employee performance and organizational citizenship behaviours (Singh & Vidyarthi, 2018). Gajendran et al. (2015) investigated the effects of remote working on individual effectiveness: they found positive effects on both task and contextual performance, but this was dependent on the relationship with the line manager. Individuals with a good supervisor relationship achieved higher levels of task and contextual performance regardless of the extent to which they worked remotely.

In the following sections we consider the role of line managers across all stages of exploration, negotiation, implementation, and maintenance of flexible working in organizations. Line managers often play a significant role in determining who is permitted to take up flexible working arrangements and in what format, given that many flexible working arrangements are negotiated on an individual basis. Granting the option to work flexibly has implications for managing staff effectively, as employees gain additional control over their work schedules and/or working hours, as well as the potential to decide where to work. Thus, the line manager must consider the effects on their own work, and also on the work of their team. Flexible working has positive benefits for the organization (e.g., attracting and retaining talented staff, more motivated and committed employees), and the employee (e.g., increased autonomy, improved work-life balance), but recent studies have also highlighted the “dark side’’ of flexible working. It creates management challenges for the line manager (e.g., difficulties with communication and coordination), and can be divisive in a team context, by creating perceptions of unfairness, competitive climate, and stigma. Research has also suggested that flexible working may not provide expected benefits for employees, as it can lead to work intensification and career “penalties”. Over time, flexible workers may become marginalized by perceptions of reduced contribution from both colleagues and managers. These are all challenges for the line manager in terms of successfully managing teams of employees who work flexibly, not only in the early stages of implementing flexible working, but also over time as flexible working is integrated into daily operations.