Employment profiles and FWA needs and access among the age groups

The 'young adult’ stage starts when children transition into adulthood and begin to exert their independence; working to earn income, starting a family and/or extending their knowledge, skills and experiences to shape their careers. With limited experience and bargaining positions, the employment rate is low among young adults (42.2% for first quarter of 2019; OECD, 2019b) who are pushed into available job openings. They are likely to access non-standard employment as part-time or temporary workers, which is conducive to studying or working multiple jobs. This position is consistent with data from the OECD (2019a) and the Ai Group (2018) for Australia, which show that young adults, particularly those without tertiary education, have low work hours and face high risk of under-employment. The Ai Group (2018) identifies studying as the main reason for part-time work among this age group. FWA needs of young adults are, therefore, likely to be met from non-standard employment and few would successfully negotiate FWAs as full-time employees.

Table 15.1 Employment profiles and FWA access for employee age groups in developed and emerging countries

Source: Compiled by the authors from information in this chapter, which draws on research noted in the reference list. For example, see Agarwal et al., 2018; Atkinson & Sandiford, 2016; Bal & de Lange, 2015; Cogin, 2012; de Lange, Kooij & Van der Heijden, 2015; Glass, 2007; Goldman & Lewis, 2005; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004; Kooij et al.. 2014; Loretto & Vickerstaff, 2015; Riedmann et al., 2006; Twenge, 2010; Wang et al., 2011; and Whyman et al., 2015, amongst others. See References at the end of the chapter for further details.

Pursuit of growth and extrinsic rewards is prevalent among middle adults who are looking to raise families and establish careers (Baltes, 1997). Their employment status and FWA requirements depend on their gender, education and skill levels. Those with limited skills and without tertiary qualifications may access part-time, casual or short-term contracts or temporary positions

or they may require flexible work hours if they are in full-time positions and have preschool-age children (OECD, 2019a). Middle adults include the large number of females who work part-time to meet flexible work needs (Eurofound, 2016; Ai Group, 2018). They are less likely to access the HPWPs available to core employees (Thevenon et al., 2016), including desired FWAs. On the contrary, highly educated and experienced middle adults are good candidates for permanent positions as core employees to whom organisations direct their HPWPs (Kooij et al., 2011). Employees in this group are likely to be successful at negotiating flexible work hours, telecommuting and other FWAs. FWAs for employees in this group often relate to meeting carer responsibilities (Ai Group, 2018). In general, the risk of under-employment is lower for middle adults than for young adults (OECD, 2019a).

Careers peak simultaneously with declining carer responsibilities for children for mature workers. Similar to middle adults, their education, skills and carer responsibilities would determine their employment status (OECD, 2019a). Those with tertiary education, established careers, stable work and limited carer responsibilities would be attracted to few FWAs, although in good bargaining positions to negotiate them. Mature workers would seek to consolidate their work achievements and pursue recognition for their accomplishments (Kooij et al., 2011; Fuchs, 1983). Those without carer responsibilities are likely to seek job security with flexible hours to attend to social commitments that meet their emotional needs, while those with carer responsibilities may negotiate other FWAs (e.g. reduced hours and working from home). Despite the long work hours associated with high-level positions, mature workers in these positions would avoid explicitly negotiating compressed work hours. Unemployment is usually low among mature workers (OECD, 2019b) and those who work non-standard hours do so by choice (Ai Group, 2018), although at the risk of under-employment if unable to secure their desired work hours.

Senior workers may experience a reduction in work performance due to potential changes in health status. However, other reports suggest that overall an age-diverse team can enhance profits and productivity since older workers bring experience, skills and better people skills to their job (Agarwal et al., 2018). Senior workers would, therefore, seek exemptions from compressed hours and overtime work. Moreover, social and emotional needs and care for older relatives or grandchildren may lead them to request flexible or reduced hours, part-time work, job sharing or even retirement (de Lange et al., 2015). Preference for reduced hours puts senior workers, particularly males, at risk of under-employment (OECD, 2019a). The indications are that senior workers are in a lesser position to negotiate suitable FWAs.