THE EARLY BRONZE AGE (CA. 2800/2700-2400/2300 BC)
This period corresponds to NMG IV. In southern Turkmenistan, the large settlements of Namazga Depe, Ulug Depe, Khapuz Depe, and Altyn Depe concentrate most of the population. In the central part of the Kopet Dagh foothills, only one large center, Namazga Depe, has been identified. At Ak Depe near Ashkhabad, the 3rd millennium material synchronous with late NMG III and NMG IV is dominated by gray ware with applied decoration (but light-slip painted pots are also present), terracotta anthropomorphic ladles, double-sided seal-like artifacts, and a specific type of female figurine (Sarianidi 1976: 95, fig. 15, 1, 9, 14; Kircho 1999: 113, fig. 21, 9, 10, 12; 2014b: fig. 4, 1), unknown at sites located to the east of Ashkhabad. The Ak Depe complex is original in that, during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, it testifies to contacts both with the Namazga-Altyn cultural area and with the southeastern Caspian one.
Architecture
At Altyn Depe, within the settlement, an organized system of communications appears with large streets almost intersecting in the center of the mound and, accordingly, four entrances (Kircho 2011: 83). Monumental perimeter walls bolstered with counterforts are built (Figure 4.9, 2). During the whole period, the density of constructions constantly rises. In the early stage, residential quarters consist of several double-room houses (i.e., a main room and an entrance hall) with a common utility courtyard. The center of the main room is occupied by a hearth on a round or square clay base (Figure 4.9, 3). The burial chambers and production structures like kilns are built in special remote areas on the outskirts or inside the courtyards (Kircho 2001b: 31-33, 35). Important social changes are visible in building works like the erection of powerful retaining walls needing a cooperation between different groups.
Burials
In addition to the round or rectangular burial chambers with collective inhumations (Figures 4.9, 4; 4.10, 5), individual burials dug into the cultural layers are known, as well as a few cases of three simultaneous inhumations. “Standard” sets of burial artifacts for rich female graves are now well established (Kircho 2005a: 418-421, figs. 3, 4, 6, 18-21).
Material culture
An intense development of pottery (Figures 4.9, 66-88; 4.10,50-79) and the production of valuable stone items (Figures 4.9,39-65; 4.10, 28-49) are probably primarily
Figure 4.9 Altyn Depe (8-6 levels), main components of the cultural complex of the early phase of the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2800/2700-2500 BC). 1, schematic plan of the location of the excavations; 2, retaining wall; 3, isometric view of a house; 4, burial chamber; 5-15, metal artifacts; 16-20, bone artifacts; 21, 23-27, 29-31, 33-38, terracotta artifacts; 22, slightly baked clay; 28, 32, unbaked clay; 39-50, 53-65, stone artifacts; 51, 52, heated-stone artifacts; 66-88, pottery.
due to the introduction of rotational tools (potter’s wheel and mounted drills), brought in from the more developed Iranian and south Afghan centers. Metalworking testifies to a significant evolution, as shown in the stamped or engraved decoration that appears on mirror and seal, and on the steppedrhomb shaped heads of the cosmetic sticks (Figure 4.9, 6,13,15). Use-wear analyses of tools and artifacts have shown that metal instruments are increasingly used and that almost all the areas of production are now specialized (Korobkova 2.001: 190).
The Early Bronze Age material culture continues and develops the Late Chalcolithic traditions (Masson and Kircho 1999: 65-68, figs. 1, 2). Almost all the major components of the early NMG IV (levels 8-6 at Altyn Depe), like dwellings and graves, pottery shapes and their geometrical decoration, anthropomorphic figurines, button seals, “reliquaries,” alabaster cosmetic vessels, copper mirrors, and cosmetic sticks, have their prototypes in the Late Chalcolithic materials (Kircho 2004: 387).
However, there are also innovations. At the very beginning of the Early Bronze Age, the first copper and terracotta stamp seals appear (Figure 4.9, 6,21) (Kircho 2004: 388, fig. 4, 2, 12) and marble-like stone cosmetic vessels spread out (Figure 4.9, 57-60) (Kircho 2014a: 67). The main innovation of the NMG IV period is the presence of stone make-up containers (previously considered as lamps) (Figure 4.9, 61-64) in t^e inventories of rich female burials, clearly related to a specific burial rite or to a social group.
