THE BMAC TYPES OF SEALS: PRELIMINARY REMARKS

There are three major BMAC types of seals: stamp seals, compartmented seals, and cylinder seals. While the first two follow the traditional seal production of the Iranian Plateau and of the Namazga culture in the southern Turkmenistan Piedmont area, cylinder seals were introduced from Mesopotamia, through the Elamite and the southeastern Iranian Kerman cultures. However, cylinder seals developed into a new variety that is more frequent, the stamp cylinder.¹² Although the classical variety of longitudinally perforated cylindrical seals is attested, the most typical BMAC cylinder seals have an additional stamp seal on one of the flat sides and a loop handle on the opposite side. Nevertheless, compared with the other two types, cylinder seals and stamp cylinders are relatively rare.

All these different types of seals had various functions: as amulets, to denote rank, family, or household affiliation, as well as ownership. They have been found as impressions on bullae, vessels, and cretulae. As noted above, they may also have served as founding deposits. Furthermore, seals seem to have had a high value. This is not only suggested by the precious metals or stones some are made of, or by their elaborate designs, but also by the traces of repair and reuse some of them present, and the new perforations for suspension done after the loss of their original handle (Figures 8.2b, j; 8.4c, m) (perforated after loss of handle: MM m, 1025,1775, 3727,4352; NM 224, 240,1090a, e, 1274,1808/ 78,1866/261, 2287/15; face reworked: MM 2009).

Seals were locally produced as shown by the 2005 discovery at Gonur North Area 9, room 107, in a series of rooms reused for metallurgical activities, of a mold for casting a compartmented seal with a four-arms cross framed by a guilloche (Figure 8.18a). A second mold for a seal unfortunately has no provenience indications (Figure 8.18b).

We will consider next, successively, the stamp seals, the compartmented seals, the handles of these two types, the cylinder seals and stamp cylinders, and finally the seal impressions.

THE BMAC STAMP SEALS

There is a great variety of stamp seals, with different numbers of faces and in various styles, distinguishing them from the classical one-side stamp seals of the Mesopotamian tradition. Although there are numerous one-side stamp seals in the BMAC, the most characteristic stamp seal is two-sided and has multifigured motifs.

Stamp seals were made of different materials (Table 8.4). Craftsmen used various soft stones like alabaster, chlorite, or steatite; marble; white stone; or gypsum. Sometimes they were made of a violet or a dark red stone, or lapis lazuli. Some stamp seals were made of faience and bear remains of a greenish glaze. Craftsmen also used metals (mainly

Table 8.4 Margiana stamp seals: materials and store museums

Note: MFA = Museum of Fine Art; MM = Mary Regional History Museum; NM = National Museum.

^a Most faience seals are compartmented seals. Only a small number belongs to the type of stamp seals.

“bronze,” and exceptionally gold), and, finally, they produced many stamp seals in terracotta or unbaked clay. This clay material mainly applies to conical seals. These clay seals, fired or not, mostly originate from later sites or later periods, like Gonur Depe South, Adam Basan, Taip Depe, Togolok, Adji Kui, and others. Finally, there are also some rare seals made of lapis lazuli, kaolin, or jade (found at Togolok i and Gonur).

Most stamp seals are relatively small, between i and z cm in length or diameter. Flat two-sided stamp seals are often only i mm high. Stamp seals with a handle can reach i cm or more in height.

The stamp seal motifs were produced in two main different styles (see pp. 243-147 for these styles and Table 8.11): the simple “drilled style” and the “Murghab-style.” Only one stone stamp seal in the “evolved style” has been found during excavations. Other stamp seals are attested with roughly engraved, drilled, or scratched motifs, or combinations of the three techniques and constitute the “simple style.”

Stamp seals appear in seven different types. The three main ones are: (1) onesided stamp seals with a handle on the back (type 1, Figures 8.1a, 8.2a-c, 8.if-h, 8.zj); (2) two-sided stamp seals either with a longitudinal perforation or, when crossshaped, with perforations on one or two arms (type 2, Figures 8.ic-j; 8.2d-e; 8.zi, k; 8-5a-b, e-f; 8.6a, f); and (3) conical stamp seals with a solid perforated back (type 7, Figure 8.3). They all can be divided into subtypes according to the shape of the face. Conical ones can be divided into subtypes according to the shape of the back. For the handles, see p. 235.