Burial practices

Funerary practices are extremely diverse and include different types of surface and underground structures, as well as different types of burials and body treatments (Luneau 2014: 154-160). Primary burials (in grave pits or in jars), secondary burials, cremations, burials without bodies (often called cenotaphs), human burials with animals, and animal-only burials have been recorded so far (Figure 18.5,1-7). Except for cremation, all were already attested during the mature phase of the Oxus Civilization. Primary and individual burials are the majority. The practice of burials without human bodies, sometimes replaced by unbaked clay figurines (Figure 18.5, 6), is a significant and specific component of the final phase of the Oxus Civilization (almost 21% of the graves recorded) but is very unevenly distributed, according to the data collected so far (Figure 18.7). Contrary to the previous period, there is less differentiation in the quality and quantity of the funerary goods between the individuals (between o to 15 ceramics and o to 14 objects not counting beads). Meat offerings were found in half of the graves. Various evidence of fire and possible post-sepulchral rituals with the deposition of a few ceramic pots (Figure 18.5, 8) are also common in some graveyards.

Together with the changes in the burial structures - aboveground (appearance of big clay blocks or large stone deposits) or underground (disappearance of mudbrick graves, appearance of large stone fillings) - and with those in the quantitative and

Figure 18.5 Types of graves and funerary practices related to the Oxus Civilization from Uzbekistan in the Final Bronze Age. 1. Primary inhumations in the ground (Dzharkutan, ©MAFOUZ-Protohistoire); 2. Primary inhumation in jar (Dzharkutan, ©MAFOUZ-Protohistoire); 3. Cremation (Bustan 6, after Avanesova 2013: 547, fig. Ill); 4. Cremation structures (Bustan 6, after Avanesova 2013: 550, fig. VI); 5. Burial without body (Dzharkutan, ©MAFOUZ-Protohistoire); 6. Burial without body and unbaked clay figurine (Bustan 6, after Avanesova 2013: 548, fig. IV); 7. Animal burial (Dzharkutan, ©MAFOUZ-Protohistoire); 8. Offering pit with few vessels at the surface of the graves (Dzharkutan, ©MAFOUZ-Protohistoire).

Figure 18.6 Examples of imported artifacts and/or of influences related to the northern steppe central Asian cultures in the Oxus Civilization. 1-4. Earring and pendants in gold and copper alloy from Bustan 6 (after Avanesova 2013: 558, fig. XIV); 5. Knife in copper alloy from Nurek (after Zejmal’ 1985: fig. 28); 6-7. Wheel-coiled and handmade pottery of coarse ware with “Andronovo”-like decorations (Molali, ©Deutsches Archäologisches Institute, Eurasien-Abteilung); 8. Wheel-made pottery of fine ware with “Andronovo”-like shape and decorations (Kutimov 2013).

Legend : J Primary inhumation

Sb Deposit

Cremation

] Grave without human remains

Q Primary inhumation in jar

[J Secondary inhumation

Animal burial

Figure 18.7 Geographic distribution of the main types of burial practices at the Final Bronze Age sites of the Oxus Civilization.

qualitative homogenization of the grave goods or in the miniaturization of the artifacts, a larger variety in the funerary treatment is obvious and attests significant symbolic mutations in comparison with the previous period. It is particularly visible in the eastern areas (southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) with a high increase of burials without a human body and the appearance of cremation while, at the same time, the number of burials with human remains decreases. This major shift in the ideological and symbolic beliefs of the populations is likewise attested by the disappearance of most of the figurative representations (except few animal and anthropomorphic figurines) on the whole territory.

A turning point is also observed in the differentiation of male and female graves, suggesting a possible modification in the social status and functions of men and women in comparison with the previous periods (Luneau 2.008). The current archaeological data reveals a reduction in the wealth discrepancy between the different burials, suggesting a more equal distribution of goods between the deceased. But this may also point to another funeral strategy and conception of death, in which graves are not necessarily supposed to indicate the social status of the deceased and cannot be used alone as a sign of a lesser social stratification between individuals.

Regionalization

Although the disparity in research may be misleading, it is during the latest phase of the Oxus Civilization that regional differences (stylistic and technological features in the material culture, burial practices in particular) seem to be the most vivid, a possible testimony to decentralization and greater local autonomy.

Finally, diverse and complex mutations are characteristic for the final phase of the Oxus Civilization (Table 18.1). They attest to a long evolution over three centuries at least, but the missing chronological information still impedes understanding of the general and detailed dynamics of these processes. Ongoing research is still unravelling these complex changes.