FOURTEEN BIOARCHAEOLOGY OF THE BMAC POPULATION A short review

INTRODUCTION

During the many years of archaeological excavations in former Soviet Central Asia and the bordering regions, extensive anthropological data has been gathered, including reports on the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods (summaries in Ginzburg and Trofimova 1972: 48-98; Alekseev and Gokhman 1984: 19-27; Kijatkina 1987; Khodzhajov et al. 2011). A major part of this data originates from the sites now classified as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Culture (BMAC). Until recently, the main concern of anthropologists was the reconstruction of the anthropo-genetical types, and, therefore, most publications focused only on skull studies. This is also true for a number of early publications concerning the population of the surrounding territories - in particular Iran and the Indus valley (see, e.g., Dutta 1972; Cappieri 1973; Pardini and Sarvari-Negahban 1976). As a consequence, other significant anthropological aspects were either not addressed at all or given less attention in the scientific literature.

The goal of this chapter is to summarize the data on some specific aspects of the biological and social adaptation of the population of the BMAC area and of bordering territories, on the basis of a study of the pathological and stress markers. However, several limitations have to be underlined. First, the small amount of such data compels us to include a number of comparisons, and this explains why we will discuss material from remote sites, which, nevertheless, present the same general economic orientation as those of the BMAC (mainly based on agriculture). Second, often at multilayered sites, the anthropological data has been published as a whole, without possibilities to extract what concerns specifically the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium. This explains that we may speak of sites and periods apparently far from our theme.

Before going further into the matter, we should note that, unlike for the paleopathological data, the paleodemographical data of Central Asia, which also concerns the bioarchaeological reconstruction, has been recently partly gathered in T.K. Khodzhajov and A.V. Gromov’s (2009) publication. Without focusing on demographic issues, we should underline that the use of paleodemographical indicators, such as the average age of the deceased (Table 14.1 and Figure i4-i),to reconstruct the interaction between ancient populations and the environment involves a number of

Table 14.i Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlements in Central Asia and adjacent regions with paleodemographical data. All belong to the Bronze Age except for Kara-Depe and Geoksjur which date to the Chalcolithic period and Altyn-Depe which dates to both the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods

Note: N = number of individuals.

Figure 14.1 Average life expectancy of the adult population (AA) in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age samples.

difficulties. In particular, there is no consistent pattern in the existing local variations of the demographic parameters, and thus they cannot be directly associated with a particular economic structure or “environmental niche” (Alekseev et al. 1986: 104). For example, the average life expectancy of the adult population in the “steppes” (Andronovo population of western Kazakhstan and southern Siberia) falls within the criteria limits common among the farming population of southern Central Asia. In addition, the paleodemographical data is to a certain extent a reconstruction (i.e., does not directly come out of the study of the material - the skeletal sample is just a prototype of a real population), and actually provides us with “models” only roughly reflecting the real demographic situation of different groups of the ancient population. Consequently, the paleopathological data gives more valuable information for the study of the adaptative process of the ancient population.

Up to now, there is very little evidence of the spread of any disease among the former population of the BMAC area. The data at hand is well representative for the population of Gonur Depe, but rather disparate for the inhabitants of the regions around, except for Harappa and Tepe Hissar. We have to mention here that we do not take into consideration the paleopathological data from Mesopotamia (territories of Syria and Iraq), since it has been recently gathered and systematized by A. Soltysiak (2.012). Thereafter in this study, we discuss and analyze material from the former Soviet territories in Central Asia, the Iranian Plateau, and the Indus valley (Table 14.2). The occurrence of pathological markers among the Andronovo communities from the Altai and Minusinsk basin (with a more cattle breeding orientation) serves as comparative data (Mednikova 2005; Tur and Rykun 2008; Svyatko 2014).

A highly descriptive interpretation of the Central Asian paleopathological discoveries is given in a few publications on the ancient and medieval population of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (Moldavskij and Khodzhajov 1983; Babakov et al. 1986; Babakov 1988; Khodzhaeva and Moldavskij 1990). In the light of modern methodological approaches to the anthropological sources, these publications are mainly of historiographical interest. Numerous case studies also remain beyond the scope of our discussion, since our aim is to characterize the adaptative process in the populations of the BMAC and the bordering territories using the most common paleopathological criteria. But even such a rough systematization of the data faces a number of problems, both objective and subjective in nature.

The first (objective) difficulties include: (1) the often bad or unsatisfactory conditions of preservation of the anthropological material; (2) the limitation due to skeletal selection (some series include only skulls or lack skeletons of children and teenagers); (3) the impossibility, in many cases, to reexamine the collections using modern approaches, because the remains have been re-buried; (4) the great variation in the number of samples from different chronological levels at a site, which obviously limits their direct comparison (e.g., the maximum number of selected samples for dental pathology analysis at Tepe Hissar I, II, and III concern, respectively, 18, 27, and 169 individuals).

Among the second (subjective) problems, we can mention: (1) incoherence in the methodological approaches used by different researchers: for example, the use of individuals for some of them or of dental number indicators for others (cf. Khodzhajov 1977; and Lorentz 2010); (2) discrepancies between different studies in the documentation of the pathological markers (the most illustrative in this regard

Table 14.2 BMAC settlements and sites from adjacent regions from which human remains were the subject of paleopathological examination

Table 14.2 Cont.

Note: Sites from which the material is not discussed in this chapter.

is the data on the prevalence rate of anemia among the Indus valley population, see Lovell 2016: 176); (3) manipulations with the various selected samples from the same site, which often lead to contradictory results (compare the data on Tepe Hissar from Afshar 2014 and Speakman 2017); (4) different sets of characteristics and/or levels of characterization in the study reports of the different researchers; (5) emphasis on the craniological analysis related mainly with ethnic and genetic issues and the fragmentary presentation of concurrent data (e.g., the Sialk publication provides only information on the prevalence of carious lesions; see Vallois 1939).

Despite these caveats, we have tried to summarize the available data on the status of the population’s health during the Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Early Iron Age, with an emphasis on the BMAC settlements. As noted above, the paleopathological data on the populations of the surrounding areas (Iranian Plateau, Indus valley, and the “steppe world” or Andronovo culture) serves as comparative data.

The prevalence of certain dental diseases among the adult population of the compared groups is shown by the figures given in Table 14.3. The most noticeable feature is an almost complete absence of dental caries among the representatives of the Andronovo culture, while it prevails among the farming population (the Sapallitepa data is not entirely convincing in the general scheme). From the available information, we can observe a chronological trend: Dental caries increase over time - in the population of the later periods, the percentage of pathology is generally higher (i.e., data from Sarai Khola and Timargarha in northern Pakistan; from Mehrgarh and Harappa in southern Pakistan; Buston VI in Uzbekistan). The prevalence of the dental abscesses does not demonstrate any consistent pattern, except for abnormally low frequencies at Sapallitepa and abnormally high at Tepe Hissar. Almost all the examined individuals from the Andronovo population have dental calculus. This is also true among the farming population (the use of grinding stones increases the abrasive properties of cooked products), but it is a little less noticeable in the Harappa sample, which may indicate some specific cooking technology. The abnormally low rate of the antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) in the Altyn Depe sample can be explained by two factors: the small volume of the sample and the prevalence of the younger subgroup (up to 35 years) in it. The enamel hypoplasia stress marker represents the most controversial data. This is due to discrepancies in the ways the markers were documented in the different studies (data on the Large Necropolis and

Table 14.3 Frequency of dental disease in some Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Early Iron Age groups (individual account, both sexes together)

Table 14.3 Cont.

Note: AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; EH = Enamel hypoplasia; N = number of individuals; n = number of cases (affected individuals).

^a Period III (latest graves in the ruins at Gonur Depe).

late burials at Gonur Depe); in case of understatement of the occurrence rates, we deal with cases when only distinct front-teeth enamel defects have been documented.

From the data obtained on the dental diseases among the sedentary population of the BMAC area and of the bordering territories, similarities in the occurrence of jaw and teeth pathologies (with a few exceptions), are significant. The situation is markedly different for the “steppe” groups. Despite the complex causes for dental caries, we tend to associate their high occurrence among the BMAC, Iranian Plateau, and Indus valley populations with their diet based on a farming economy. The prevalence of dental calculus and the almost total absence of dental caries is a particular feature of the Andronovo series. These results lead us to suppose that, despite minor differences in the frequency of occurrence of these markers, the causes of the antemortem tooth loss and enamel hypoplasia were quite different in the sedentary farming societies and in the steppe pastoral groups.

Information on the pathological and stress-marker occurrences on the skulls and the postcranial skeletons is presented in Table 14.4. The relatively low frequency of the osteological anemia marker - cribra orbitalia - in the samples from Harappa and from the late burials of Gonur (those dug in the “ruins”) is worthy of interest. On the one hand, it may indicate a higher “quality of life” for these groups, but, on the other hand, it may reflect the differences in the landscape and ecological living conditions of the various groups of the ancient population. It should be recalled that other figures (i.e., 25%) have been given for the porotic hyperostosis occurrence in the Indus valley sites (Lovell 2016: 176; see also Kennedy 1984; Lovell 1997). The incidence of traumatic injuries in farming groups is relatively low. Some higher figures in the cranial trauma at Harappa and the postcranial trauma at Gonur may reflect a higher level of interpersonal aggression, related to a high population density. It is interesting that traumatic injuries are more common among women than men in the Gonur group (Kufterin 2ot6b).The frequency of osteoarthritis of the articulations and spine appears to be quite high among the farming populations while, on the contrary, there is very little osteological evidence of infection (in particular limb periostitis). The latter fact should not be considered as a proof of a low risk of infection within the proto-urban settlements. It is known that a number of common but critical infectious

Table 14.4 Frequency (%) of stress indicators in some Bronze Age groups

(Altai)

Note: CO = Cribra orbitalia; OA = osteoarthritis.

Table 14.5 “Correspondence analysis” results: loads of marks for vectors I and II

diseases are quickly followed by death without leaving osteological manifestations. Apparently, we face here the phenomenon of an “osteological paradox”: Bones without evidence of inflammatory diseases may not be those of healthy individuals.

Table 14.5 and Figure 14.2 show the results of a formalized comparison (through correspondence analysis) of six groups (Gonur Depe, Altyn Depe, Buston VI, Tepe Hissar, Harappa, and the Andronovo sites in the Altai) and six pathological markers (dental caries, dental calculus, tooth loss, enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia - for the Buston VI series the absent value was substituted by an average value - and skull injuries). Figure 14.2 shows a coherent highly isolated position of the Andronovo series, which is characterized by a high positive loading on vector I and high negative loading on vector II. The specific characteristics of the Andronovo populations include a high frequency of cranial injuries, evidence of dental calculus, and anemia (the latter feature, however, is not common for the pastoral populations of Eurasia,

Figure 14.2 “Correspondence analysis” results. Layout of features and groups in the range of I and II vectors (47.6% and 32.8% of inertia): 1: Gonur-depe; 2: Altyn Depe; 3: Buston VI; 4: Tepe Hissar III; 5: Harappa; 6: Andronovo culture (Altai).

see, e.g., Mednikova 2005: 279), with a total absence of dental caries. The isolation of the Altyn Depe series probably represents a statistical artifact due to the very small number of samples. The groups from Bactria (Buston VI) and Margiana (Gonur Depe) are the closest ones, as are also the series from Iran (Tepe Hissar) and Bronze Age Harappa. This underlines the similarity between the pathological profiles and the biosocial adaptation of the ancient farming population in regions with different landscapes and ecological environments.

The results of the study are presented in Table 14.6. In all, these figures correspond to those from an “idealized model of subsistence systems correlated with demography and health” for farming populations, as proposed by J. Lukács (2007: 291). As mentioned above the high infection risk does not have clear osteological evidence in the materials from the majority of the BMAC sites or from the bordering territories. Judging from the paleopathological characteristics, the biosocial adaptation of the

Table 14.6 Summary of results: frequency of diseases and stress indicators among the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age populations

Note: * = low; *’ = average; = relatively high.

farming and pastoral population were significantly distinct from one another. At the same time, the populations of the Central Asia oases (BMAC), the Iranian Plateau, and the Indus valley present obvious similarities in pathological status. It infers that the local variations can be caused, on the one hand, by the special nature of adaptation to the different environmental conditions and, on the other hand, by the differences in the methodological approaches used by the researchers in their studies.

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