African Foreign Policies: Selecting Signifiers to Explain Agency
IntroductionSignifiersForeign policy agency: Individual and collectiveCulture and ideology expressed in foreign policyThe agency of small states: Balancing, rhetoric, role conceptionsAgency and anti-agency: Strategic choices informed by realismConclusionNotesReferencesAfrican agency: Past into present African foreign policy concepts and practicesIntroductionAfrican foreign policy practice—Then into nowAfrican re-imagining and actorness: The African Renaissance and South AfricaConclusionNotesReferencesThe African Union as a foreign policy player: African agency in international cooperationIntroductionForeign policy as African agency and African agency as foreign policyAU: Foreign policy actor and foreign policy makerAfrican agency: Concept and practiceThe context of Africa’s agency in international relations: Post-coloniality, identity and ideologyAgents, elites and African summitry as drivers of African agencyConstituting actors and processes at AU: African foreign policy makingAU foreign policy on international cooperation: The record on partnershipsBeyond partnerships: African collective diplomacy in actionLibyaUN reformConclusionNotesReferencesUnprincipled pragmatism and anti-imperialist impulses in an interconnected world: The Zuma presidency, 2009–2017IntroductionThe ANC’s conceptual approach to foreign policySouth Africa and external relationsWeakening moral authorityTurning away from the WestConclusion: The future shape of South Africa’s foreign policyReferencesTowards a strategic culture approach to understanding and conceptualising Ethiopia’s foreign policy towards Israel and the Middle Eastern Arab countriesIntroduction and contextA strategic culture framework for conceptualising Ethiopia’s Middle Eastern foreign policyStrategic culture theory in International Relations and Foreign Policy AnalysisEthiopia’s strategic culture and foreign policy objectivesEthio-Israeli relationsBackground and contextEthio-Israeli relations under Haile SelassieThe OAU and the Arab-Israeli conflict and the role of Emperor Haile SelassieEthio-Israeli relations under the Derg and Mengistu Haile-MariamThe OAU and the Arab-Israeli conflict and the role of Mengistu Haile-MariamEthio-Israel relations under the EPRDF and Meles ZenawiThe OAU and the Arab-Israel conflict and the role of Meles ZenawiEthiopian and Middle Eastern Arab relationsBackground and contextEthio-Egyptian relationsEthiopian and the Arabian Peninsula countries’ relationsShift in Ethiopia’s strategic culture and foreign policy under the EPRDF and MelesConclusionNotesReferencesNigeria’s foreign policy and intervention behaviour in Africa: What role for agency?IntroductionReappraising Nigeria’s foreign policy and intervention behaviour in Africa since independenceWhat role for agency?ConclusionNotesReferencesZimbabwe and new signifiers: Towards a cultural political economy of foreign policy makingIntroductionCulture and foreign policy: Mugabe and the use of totemismAfrica: Individual and collective foreign policy as expressions of irrationalityConclusionNoteReferencesRealist conceptions of Kenya’s foreign policy and foreign policy behaviour: A theoretical and contextual dispositionBackground and introductory contextRealism: Theoretical and conceptual frameworks for analysisFrom KDF to AMISOM: Realism and Kenya’s foreign policy behaviour towards SomaliaStrategic environment and interdependence: Implications on Kenya’s foreign policy interestsConclusionNotesReferencesAddressing the conceptual void of African small state foreign policy in orthodox theory: A case study of Botswana’s principled pragmatismIntroductionConstructivism: An appropriate theoretical frameworkBotswana’s foreign policy and IR theoryThe treatment of Botswana’s foreign policy in literatureBotswana’s foreign policy principlesBotswana’s foreign policy: Principled pragmatism in practicePosture towards white minority ruleBotswana’s conference diplomacy and negotiation skillsBotswana and the norms and principles of SADC and the AUSADC norms and principlesAV norms and principlesLesotho’s political crisisThe fallout with ZimbabweThe AU and ICC crisisDomestic change and Botswana’s international liberal credentialsConclusionNotesReferencesTunisia’s foreign policy towards France before and after an undemanding “revolution”: A theoretical explanation of the An-Nahdha-led interim governments’ soft policyIntroductionTunisia’s foreign policy towards France before the uprisingPost-uprising cooperation with Ben Ali’s main international ally, 2011–2014First An-Nahdha-led government and President SarkozyFirst An-Nahdha-led government and President HollandeSecond An-Nahdha-led government and President HollandeA realist-constructivist explanation of the puzzleTheory application to the Tunisian caseConclusionNotesReferencesStraddling between convergence and divergence: A constructivist’s view of Malawi’s foreign policy in post-independence AfricaIntroductionIn defiance of African unity?Embracing African unityConclusionReferencesStrategies of a small state between realism and liberalism: Sixty years of Guinea’s diplomacy and foreign policy (1958-2018)IntroductionRealism, liberalism and small states: Theoretical underpinnings of Guinea’s foreign policiesRealist postulates in Guinea’s foreign policyA liberal ethos in Guinea’s foreign policyWhat is the impact of Guinea’s “small state” status on its foreign policy orientations?Guinea’s realist foreign policy in action under the First Republic (1958–1984)Inconsistent liberalism in Guinea’s foreign policy since 1984Promotion of regional integration in AfricaTheories about regional integrationRegional integration in Guinea’s foreign policyThe establishment of the OAU, 1963The formation of ECOWAS, 1975ConclusionNotesReferencesRethinking SADC: A mixed actor approach to collective policymaking on external relationsIntroductionSADC’s history of policymaking: Policymaking under the FLS to the SADCCSADC’s policymaking and power relationsSADC’s policies and non-state actorsSADC’s collective mixed actor approach on gender securitySADC’s key policies on genderConcluding reflectionsNotesReferencesGhana: Identity formation and the foreign and defence policies of a small stateIntroductionNational role conceptions as ideational bedrock of foreign and defence policiesGhana’s foreign and defence policiesForeign and defence policies under NkrumahNkrumah and Pan-AfricanismNkrumah and non-alignmentDefence policy in the immediate post-independence eraForeign and defence policies after NkrumahThe interplay between Ghana’s foreign and defence policiesGhana as a peacekeeperConclusionNotesReferencesCulture and identity as foreign policy driversIdeology, leadership, identity, roles and strategySocial factors and foreign policy: The social nature of African organisationCollective foreign policy actornessConclusionNotesReferences
