Adequate Shelter

Shelter is adequate if it provides protection from the elements and a place to rest. The animals should be reasonably clean and dry. Cleanliness scores are available for a variety of breeds and are generated according to the body parts affected and the severity. See Resources for a list of useable scoring charts. Lack of cleanliness in dairy cattle has been linked to an increase in somatic cell counts, lameness, hock lesions, and claw problems (Reneau et al., 2005; Sadig et al., 2017). Low cleanliness scores in beef cattle have been linked to increased lameness and culling due to disease (Gottardo et al., 2008).

Evidence of thermal stress includes signs of both heat and cold intolerance. Thermal comfort zones vary by species and breed. See Table 17.4 for a partial list. Signs of heat stress/heat exhaustion include excessive sweating (horses, cattle), excessive panting, postural changes, (poultry, cattle, pigs), inappetence, open mouth breathing, salivation/ptyalism, staggering, elevated rectal temperature, and/or collapse. Heat index charts are available for a variety of species to determine the relative risk of heat exhaustion (Kerr, 2015). Avoid moving, handling, or stressing livestock when the temperature and humidity are high and 10% of the group is exhibiting signs of moderate heat stress. Panting scores are used to assess the current level of heat stress in individuals (Table 17.5). Animals that score >3.5 are in danger of dying. Heat stress is cumulative, especially in sheep and South American camelids. Recording temperature and humidity at the animal level inside the pen or stall will provide an accurate reflection of the true conditions experienced by the livestock.

Figure 17.7 Photograph water samples before laboratory submission to document color and turbidity.

Table 17.4 Thermoneutral zones

Sources: Adapted from Arieli et al. (2007), Cherry & Morris (2008), Gaughan et al. (2008), Ghassemi Nejad & Sung (2017), Global Animal Partnership (n/d), Gottardo et al. (2008), Kerr (2015), Lammers et al. (2007), Meat and Livestock Australia (2006), Meltzer (1983), Morgan (1998), Watkins et al. (2008), Whay et al. (2003).

Note: Humidity will narrow the range.

Table 17.5 Panting scores

Processing Forensic Cases Involving Agricultural Animal Species

Sources: Adapted from Arieli et al. (2007), Bird et al. (1988), Global Animal Partnership, Welfare Quality Protocol for Poultry, Mack et al. (2013), Gaughan et al. (2008).

Stocking density is defined as “the concentration of animals in a given space.” Stocking rate is a reflection of the number of animals that can be grazed on a piece of land with a limited amount of forage for a grazing season, (Example: 2 head/acre). Minimum stocking density has been suggested in a variety of references by species (AssureWel®, Global Animal Partnership®, Welfare Quality®).

Animals living in confinement have minimum requirements for ventilation and air exchange that are affected by housing type and weather conditions. A higher rate of air exchange is required during hot, humid conditions to maintain air quality. During colder weather, too high a rate will create drafts. Inadequate ventilation is reflected in elevated ammonia levels.

Adequacy of bedding is dependent on bedding type, quantity, and flooring. If the animals are clean and dry and the ammonia levels are acceptable, then bedding is probably adequate. Inadequate bedding is reflected in an increase in lameness (pododermatitis in poultry, digital dermatitis in ruminants, thrush in equine), abscesses (ruminants, swine, poultry), and hock lesions (cattle and swine raised in confinement). Bedding that is compacted, saturated, or moldy causes poor air quality by increasing particulates and ammonia. Research information on the adverse effects of ammonia is available for cattle: decreased function of respiratory protective functions and consequent increase in respiratory disease (Marschang, 1973); swine: increased neonatal loss, arthritis, abscesses (Donham, 1991); poultry and humans: rhinitis, cough, dyspnea, death (Carlile, 1984; Issley, 2015). The animals will exhibit one or more of the following clinical signs if the ammonia levels rise:

■ Epiphora (watery eyes/tearing) all species

■ Decrease weight gain in growing pigs at >50 ppm

■ Respiratory lesions in pigs at >100 ppm (Drummond et al., 1978, 1980, 1981a,b)

■ Respiratory lesions in cattle at >80 ppm (Lillie & Thompson, 1972)

■ Ocular and respiratory signs in poultry at >40 ppm (Carlile, 1984)

■ Pododermatitis, breast and hock burn in poultry (Global Animal Partnership; Kaukonen et al., 2016)

Commercial devices can be used to measure ammonia levels before personnel enter the premises and open the doors. Local fire departments, police stations, or environmental protection agencies can be contacted to assess air quality prior to exposure. If levels are high, use of Tyvek suits will limit contact dermatitis.

Further assessment of air quality is documented by measuring airborne particulate matter. A sheet of black paper is placed on a level surface in each enclosure housing livestock for 30 minutes. After collecting the dust, cover the sheet with acetate and label with the location, case, date and time, and collector. A black sheet of paper serves as a control. Photograph the sheets next to each other and retain them as evidence, if needed, for court.

Poultry litter quality is measured by the quality and cleanliness of the feathers and a lack of lesions on the foot pads, hocks, and breasts. If a large number of birds are present, a random sampling of birds can be used to document the cleanliness of the birds. If 50 or fewer birds are present, then individual birds should be assessed utilizing a body region technique (Campe et al., 2018). Presence and cleanliness of feathers should be noted on the head, neck, tail, wings, back, breast, and vent separately (LayWel, 2006). Wounds should be recorded in the same areas. Utilization of photographs and individual scar charts (see Resources) will aid documentation. While establishment of a pecking order is a normal expression of avian behavior, feather pecking refers to the damage or removal of feathers by a dominant bird. Feather loss can also be a result of normal thinning of feathers during a laying period. Molting during laying periods and seasonal molts are normal events. A characteristic pattern of broken feathers along the dorsal neck will be seen as a result of males grasping the neck of the females during the mating process. In extreme cases, generally flocks with a high male to female ratio, the skin may be damaged. Feathers damaged along the cranial surface of the wings are an indication the bird is using its wings to ambulate. Feather pecking can lead to cannibalism, which is a multifactorial problem involving genetics and husbandry practices. The

Figure 17.8 (a) Broken feathers and damaged skin on the dorsal neck of a female duck, (b) Abraded skin and damaged feathers on the cranial surface of the wing. This bird had severe, bilateral, tibiotarsal osteomyelitis and used her wings as crutches to ambulate.

victim birds should be segregated and treated (Clauer 2009, Jacob 2015). Note the extent and depth of the injury and presence of topical medications (Figure 17.8a,b).

Pododermatitis is an inflammation of the skin on the plantar surface of the avian foot that varies in appearance from small areas of discoloration to large erosions with crusts. Wet and sticky litter is a contributing factor in the development of the lesions (de Jong & van Harn, 2012). Bacteria can enter the disrupted skin causing septicemia or infectious arthritis. Lesions can be described as "no lesions,” "mild lesions,” and “severe lesions” or be graded according to one of the established welfare assessment protocols (Global Animal Partnership, LayWel, Welfare Assure). The scale chosen should be referenced in the report. The number and severity of lesions should be tallied and expressed as a percentage of the group affected (Figure 17.9a,b). Hock lesions may be documented with pododermatitis or be listed as a separate defect.

Figure 17.9 Plantar surface of chicken feet, (a) Normal/no lesions, (b) Mild lesions/score 2/3 LayWel® system.

Hock and carpal lesions in dairy cattle are considered a welfare issue related to abrasive lying surfaces, inadequate bedding materials, and rubbing against the cubicle fittings. These lesions can become infected and cause lameness (Kester and Frankena, 2014). Lesions should be documented photographically and drawn on the individual’s scar chart. Potterton et al. (2011) used four-point scale: “none” is a normal hock with no evidence of damaged hair, "mild” indicates the hair is worn, “moderate" reflected a loss of skin integrity, and “severe” lesions included swelling as well as a break in the skin (Whay et al., 2003). The presence and grade of lameness is also noted.