Lameness Scores

Lameness can be the result of an acute injury or a chronic problem. A small percentage of mild lameness in a group is normal, but large numbers of lame animals or severely lame animals without evidence of treatment is cause for concern. Each livestock species has its own protocol for scoring lameness (Desrochers etal., 2001; Penev, 2011; Olechnowicz & Jaskowski, 2013; Sadiq et al., 2017; Sprecher et al., 1997). In general, individual animals should be observed as they are moved slowly across a smooth, flat surface with good traction. Horses, if halter broken, can be walked and jogged on a slack lead and observed from the front, back, and side at both gaits. Poultry are moved in a group. Table 17.7 lists lameness scoring protocols by species.

Table 17.6 Parasites and their preferred location on the body

Species	Parasite	Location on Body
Bovine
Lice—sucking	Hematopinus eurysternus	Poll, nose, eye, neck, brisket
	Lignathus vituli	Withers, tail, axillae, groin
	Solenopotes capillatus	Head, especially the face, and jaw
Lice—biting	Bovicola bovis, formerly (Damalina bovis)	Neck, withers, tail head
Ticks—Hard	Amblyomma americanum	Perianal region, udder, dewlap, flank fold, axillary fold
ticks	Lone Star Tick
	Dermacentor sp. American Dog or Wood Tick; Rocky Mountain Wood Tick	Around the ears, udders, tailhead
	Dermacentor nitens Tropical Horse Tick	Ears
	Rhipicephalus sp. Cattle or Blue Tick	Around the face
Soft ticks	Otobius megnini Spinose Ear Tick	Medial pinnae
Mites	Sarcoptes scabiei var bovis	Face, neck, shoulders, rump
	Psoroptes ovis	Tailhead, base of horns, around the neck—may cover entire body
	Chorioptes sp. Leg Mites or Barn Itch	Lower legs, hooves, between legs, tail
	Demodex bovis Follicle Mite	Neck, shoulders, axillae, udder
	Rai/lietia auris Cattle Ear Mite	Ears
Flies	Stomoxys	Legs, ventral abdomen, flanks
Muscidae Biting flies	Stable Fly
	Siphona irritans Horn Fly	Backs, withers, sides (ventral abdomen in hot weather)
	Musca autumnalis Face Fly	Eyes, nose, lips
Ox Warble Goat	Hypoderma bovis Warble Fly	Lay eggs on legs—adults do not feed
Lice—sucking	Linognathus africanos African Blue Louse or African Goat Louse	Body, head, neck
	Linognathus stenopsis Goat Sucking Louse	Entire body
	Linognathus pedalis (Sheep) Foot Louse	Feet, legs
Lice—biting	Bovicola caprae Goat Biting Louse	Entire body
	Bovicola crassipes Angora Goat Biting Louse/ Hairy Goat Louse	Entire body (Continued,

Table 17.6 (Continued) Parasites and their preferred location on the body

Species	Parasite	Location on Body
	Bovicola limbata Fringed Goat Louse/ Angora Goat Louse	Entire body
Ticks—Hard	Amblyomma maculatum	Base of the horns, in ears
ticks	Gulf Coast Tick
	Amblyomma americanum Lone Star Tick	Withers and neck, less commonly head and axillae
	Dermacentor variabilis American Dog Tick
Soft ticks	Otobius megnini Spinose Ear Tick	Medial pinnae, ear canal, ear margins
Mites	Demodex caprae	Face, neck, axillae, udder (Saanen breed more severely
	Goat Follicle Mite	affected)
	Sarcoptes scabiei	Muzzle, eyes, ear margins, inner thighs to hocks, scrotum,
	Scabies Mite	ventrum
	Psoroptes cuniculi Psoroptic Ear Mite	Medial surface of pinnae
	Chorioptes bovis Chorioptic Scab Mite	Legs and feet
Fleas	Ctenocephalides felis Cat Flea	Entire body especially head, neck, ventrum
	Echidnophaga gallinácea Sticktight Flea	Face and ears
Flies—Keds	Melophagus ovinus Sheep Ked/Sheep Tick (Wingless Fly)	Neck, sides, rump, abdomen
Diptera	Oestrus ovis Nasal (Nose) Bot Fly	Larva deposited on muzzle, develop in sinuses
Muscidae	Haematobia irritans	Back, sides, ventrum, legs
Biting flies	Hom Fly Stomoxys calcitrans Stable Fly	Legs and feet
	Tabanus sp. Horse Fly	Legs and back
	Chrysops sp. Deer Fly	Head, back, legs
Horse
Lice—sucking	Hematopinus asini Horse Sucking Louse	Mane, head, neck, back, inner thigh
Lice—biting	Werneckiella (Damalina, Bovicola) equi Horse Biting Louse	Head, mane, tail base, shoulders
Ticks—Hard	Ixodes scapularis
ticks	Black-Legged or Deer Tick Ixodes pacificas Western Black-Legged Tick Dermacentor variabilis American Dog Tick
	Dermacentor albipictus Winter Tick

Table 17.6 (Continued) Parasites and their preferred location on the body

Species	Parasite	Location on Body
Tick—Soft ticks	Dermacentor andersoni Rocky Mountain Wood Tick Amblyomma americanum Lone Star Tick Amblyomma maculatum Gulf Coast Tick Amblyomma cajennense Cayenne Tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus Brown Dog Tick Otobius megnini	External ear canal, pinnae
Mites	Spinous Ear Tick Chorioptes (equi) bovis	Legs, feathered area of fetlock in draft horses
	Leg Mange Mite Psoroptes (equi) ovis	Mane, base of tail, axillae, between hind legs (rare in USA)
Flies—Diptera	Psoroptes (cuniculi) ovis Sarcoptes scabiei Sarcoptic Mange, Scabies Demodex equi Demodex caballi Pymotes sp. Forage or Straw Itch Mites Stomoxys calcitrans	Ears Sides, back, shoulders Body Muzzle, around eyes Face, neck (hay rack or net) Muzzle, legs (fed off ground) Legs
Muscidae Tabanidae	Stable Fly Haematobia irritans Hom Fly Musca autumnalis Face Fly Musca domestica House Fly Tabanus sp.	Neck, withers, back cool times of day Ventral midline during times of full sun Face, eyes, nasal discharge Entire body Head, dorsum
Oestridae	Horse fly Chrysops sp. Deer Fly Gasterophilus intestinalis	Head, neck, shoulders Eggs deposited on legs
Pigs Lice—sucking	Horse Bot Fly/Stomach Bot Fly Gasterophilus nasalis Nose Bot Fly Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis Throat Bot Fly Haematopinus suis	Eggs deposited intermandibular space Eggs deposited on muzzle Ears, neck folds, axillae, groin
Ticks—Hard ticks	Dermacentor variabilis American Dog Tick Dermacentor andersoni Rocky Mountain Wood Tick		(Continued,

Table 17.6 (Continued) Parasites and their preferred location on the body

Species	Parasite	Location on Body
	Amblyomma maculatum Gulf Coast Tick Amblyomma auricularium Ixodes scapularis
Ticks—Soft	Otobius megnini	Ear canal
ticks	Spinose Ear Tick
Mites	Sarcoptes scabiei var suis Demodex phylloides	Ears initially, then whole body
Fleas	Echidnophaga gallinacean Sticktight Flea	Ears
Flies—Diptera	Stomoxys calcitrans
Muscidae Poultry	Stable Fly
Lice—Biting	Menacanthus stramineus
lice (40 identified species)	Chicken Body Louse
	Menopon gallinae Shaft Louse Culclogaster heterographa Head Louse	Nits at base of feather shaft
Ticks—Soft	Argas persicus	Feed on birds at night especially in the coop
ticks	Fowl Tick/Blue Bugs
Mites	Ornithonyssus sylvarium Northern Fowl Mite/ Feather Mite	Vent, tail, rear legs, on eggs
	Dermanyssus gallinae Chicken Mite/Red Mite/ Roost Mite	Feeds on poultry at night and lives in coop during the day
	Knemidocoptes mutans Scaly Leg Mite/Face and Leg Mite	Proliferative lesions on scaled portion of legs
Fleas	Echidnophaga gallinae	Featherless areas—around eyes, combs, wattles, turkey head
Sheep	Sticktight Flea	and neck
Lice—sucking	Linognathus stenopsis	Whole body infested
lice	Sheep Sucking Louse
	Linognathus africanus Blue Louse	Body, head, neck
	Linognathus pedalis Foot Louse	Feet, lower legs
Lice—Chewing	Damalinia (Bovicola) ovis	Dorsum
lice	Biting Louse
Ticks—Hard	Dermacentor variabalis
ticks	American Dog Tick Dermacentor andersonii Rocky Mountain Wood Tick Amblyomma americanum Lone Star Tick

Table 17.6 (Continued) Parasites and their preferred location on the body

Species	Parasite	Location on Body
	Amblyomma maculatum Gulf Coast Tick
Ticks—Soft	Otobius megnini	Ear canal
ticks	Spinose Ear Tick
Mites	Sarcoptes scabiei var. ovis Mange Mite	Head, sides, back, legs
	Psorobia ovis Sheep Itch Mite	Entire body
	Psoroptes ovis Sheep Scab Mite	Areas with dense wool
	Chorioptes sp. Chorioptic Scab Mite	Feet, legs
	Psoroptes cuniculi Psoroptic Ear Mite	Ear margins, ear canal
Flies—Keds	Melophagus ovinus	Neck, sides, rump, abdomen
Bot Fly	Oestrus ovis Sheep Nasal Bot Fly	Larvae in nasal sinuses

Sources: Foreyt (2001), French et al. (2016), Greenacre & Morishita (2015), Kahn & Line (2010), Kaufman et al. (2015a), Kaufman et al. (2015b), Koehler et al. (2015), Loftin (2008), Martin & Mullens (2012), McClendon & Kaufman (2007), Merrill et al. (2018), Mertins et al. (2017), Scott (1988), Smith & Sherman (2009), Talley (2015), Teders (2008), Watson & Luginbuhl (2015).

Table 17.7 Lameness scoring by species

Species/Author	Lameness Grade	Description
Cattle
Desrochers et al. (2001)	O-Normal	Walks easily, readily bears weight evenly on all
Beef		four legs.
	1-Mild	Walks easily, bears full weight on limb, but stride is shortened or altered. Back level.
	2-Moderate	Reluctant to walk and bear weight, but still uses the limb to ambulate with a shortened stride. Back may be arched.
	3-Severe	Reluctant to stand. Recumbent most of the time. Refuses to walk without stimulation. Hops over limb to prevent weight-bearing. Nonweight-bearing when standing. Back is arched. Pelvis is tipped.
	4-Catastrophic	Recumbent and unable to rise. Humane euthanasia is indicated.
Berry (Zinpro Dairy)	1-Normal	Walks normally. Level back. Long strides.
	2—Mildly lame	Gait slightly abnormal. Back level when standing, but arches when walking.
	3-Moderately lame	Shortened strides on one or more legs. Back arched when standing and walking. Dewclaws sink on leg opposite of affected leg.
	4-Lame	Lame on one or more limbs. Still partially weightbearing. Back arched when standing or walking. Sinking of dewclaws obvious.
	5-Severely lame	Reluctant to move with almost complete weight transfer off the affected limb. Pronounced arching of back.

Table 17.7 (Continued) Lameness scoring by species

Species/Author	Lameness Grade	Description
Beef/Zinpro	O-Normal	Walks normally with no change in gait. Hind feet land close to hoof print of forefeet.
	1 —Mild lameness	Short strides when walking. Drops head slightly. Limp not observed at walk.
	2-Moderate	Obvious limp, but still weight-bearing. Slight head
	lameness	bob when walking.
	3-Severe lameness	Little or no weight-bearing. Reluctant or unable to move. Back is arched with dropped head and tipped pelvis. Head bob when moving. Recumbent most of the time.
	4-Catastrophic	Reluctant or unable to rise. Humane euthanasia recommended.
AHDB-United Kingdom Dairy	0-Good mobility	Flat back. Walks with even weight-bearing and rhythm on all four legs. Long, fluid strides.
	1-lmperfect mobility	Steps uneven (rhythm or weight-bearing) or a shortened stride. Affected limb or limbs not immediately identifiable.
	2-lmpaired mobility	Uneven weight-bearing on a limb that is immediately identifiable and/or a shortened stride. Usually an arch in the center of the back.
	3-Severely impaired	Unable to keep up with the herd (walk at a brisk
Equine AAEP Lameness Scale	mobility	human pace). Lame leg easy to identify-limping, may barely stand on leg. Back arched when standing or walking.
Industry Standard	0	Lameness not perceptible under any circumstances.
	1	Lameness is difficult to observe and is not consistently apparent regardless of circumstances (under saddle, hard surfaces, on incline, circling).
	2	Lameness difficult to observe at a walk or when trotting in a straight line, but becomes apparent under certain circumstances (under saddle, circling, incline, hard surfaces)
	3	Consistently observable at a trot under all circumstances.
	4	Obvious at a walk.
Pigs	5	Minimal weight bearing at a walk or at rest. Reluctant to move.
Zinpro—Sows	0	Moves easily. Comfortable on all four feet.
	1	Moves relatively easily—visible signs of lameness are apparent in at least one leg. Reluctant to bear weight but moves easily from site to site in barn.
	2	Lame in one or more limbs. Compensatory behavior evidenced by head bobbing or arched back.
	3	Reluctant to walk or weight bear. Difficult to move from place to place.
Main et al. (2004) Finishing	0	Even strides. Caudal body sways slightly when
pigs; this system includes		walking. Pig is able to accelerate and change
behavioral assessment as well		direction rapidly.

Table 17.7 (Continued) Lameness scoring by species

Species/Author	Lameness Grade	Description
	1	Abnormal stride length (not easily identified). Movements no longer fluid (pig appears stiff). Still able to accelerate and change direction.
	2	Shortened stride. Lameness detected. Swagger of caudal body when walking. No hindrance in pig's agility.
	3	Shortened stride. Minimum weight-bearing on affected limb. Swagger of caudal body while walking. Will still trot and gallop.
	4	Pig may not place affected limb on floor when moving.
	5	Pig does not move.
Welfare Quality Protocol	0	Normal gait or difficulty in walking but using all four legs. Swagger of caudal body when walking. Shortened strides.
	1	Severely lame. Minimal weight-bearing on affected limb(s).
	2	No weight-bearing on the affected limb(s). Unable to walk.
AssureWel	O-Not lame	Not lame. No apparent lameness, stiffness or uneven gait.
	1-Lame	Standing without full weight-bearing; standing on toes; walking with shortened stride; swagger in hindquarters, but still able to keep up at a trot or gallop.
Poultry Chickens-Broilers	2-Severely lame	Nonweight-bearing
Kestin et al. (1992)	O-"Gait Score 0"	Walks normally with no detectable abnormality. Dexterous and agile. Toes partially furled when the foot was in the air. No sway when walking. Can balance on one foot and walk backwards easily. Can easily deviate course to avoid other birds.
	1-"Gait Score 1"	Slight defect in the gait which is difficult to identify but would have precluded the bird's use as a breeding animal if gait were the sole selection criteria used. Uneven gait.
	2-"Gait Score 2"	Definite and identifiable gait defect, but not severe enough to prevent it from accessing resources.
	3-"Gait Score 3"	Obvious gait defect that hinders its ability to move about with maneuverability, acceleration and speed affected. Prefers squatting to moving.
	4-"Gait Score 4"	Severe gait defect. Still capable of walking, but with difficulty and only when strongly motivated. Squats down at the first available opportunity.
	5-"Gait Score 5"	Bird is incapable of sustained walking on its feet. May still be able to stand but can only move using wings or crawling in shanks.
Welfare Quality Broilers/ Laying Hens	0	Normal, agile, dexterous.
	1	Slightly abnormal, but difficult to define.
	2	Definite and identifiable abnormality.
	3	Obvious abnormality, affects ability to move.
	4	Severe abnormality, only takes a few steps.
	5	Incapable of walking.

Table 17.7 (Continued) Lameness scoring by species

Species/Author	Lameness Grade	Description
Webster et al. (2008) Broilers	0	No impairment of walking ability.
	1	Obvious impairment, but still ambulatory.
	2	Severe impairment, not able to walk without great difficulty.
Global Animal Partnership	0	Smooth gait with even steps that may be uneven at
Turkeys 2018		times. Well balanced. Foot may or may not curl when foot is lifted by the turkey. Able to walk quickly and/or run. Difficult to identify any abnormality when walking or running.
	1	Uneven gait. Irregular, short strides. Poor balance. Foot does not curl when lifted by the bird. May use wings to help with balance while walking. Squats within 15 seconds of standing or being forced to move with a gentle nudge. May lie down after several steps.
Sheep	2	Reluctant or unable to move. Shuffles or uses wings to help with movement. Takes few, if any, steps.
Kaier (2009)	0	Bears weight evenly on all four legs.
	1	Uneven posture, but no clear shortening of stride. Short stride one leg.
	2	Visible nodding of head with shortened, uneven stride.
	3	Excessive flicking of the head, more than nodding, in time with each stride.
	4	Nonweight-bearing when moving.
	5	Extreme difficulty rising, reluctant to move when stands. More than one limb affected.
	6	Will not stand or move.
Global Animal Partnership	0-Sound	Walks normally on all four legs. Easy, fluid strides.
	1-Moderately lame	Limp, head bob and shortened strides, but is able to keep up with the flock. May be hesitant to stride out. When standing, may be frequently weightshifting onto toes or heels.
	2-Severely lame	Obvious limp. No longer able to keep up with the flock. Prominent head bob. Takes deliberate, choppy strides. May not put any weight on affected leg. May graze by resting on knees.
Responsible Wool	O-Not lame	Movement smooth with weight borne evenly on all
Standard		four feet with no shortened strides. Some minor head bobbing is acceptable if walking on uneven ground.
	1-Minor lameness	Clear shortening of stride with obvious head nodding or flicking as affected limb touches the ground.
	2-Lame	Very obvious head nodding and nonweight-bearing on affected limb when moving. Foot may be held up while stands. May be grazing on knees with front leg lameness. Steps shortened or uneven.
	3-Severe lameness	Recumbency or reluctance to stand or move. Affected limb is easily identifiable and may be held off the ground when walking or standing.

Sources: AssureWel, Cramer et al. (2018), De Jong & van Harn (2012), Desrochers et al. (2001), Greenough et al. (2003), Global Animal Partnership (2017), Gottardo et al. (2008), Kaier et al. (2009), Kestin et al. (1992), Main et al. (2000), Olechnowicz & Jaskowski (2013), Penev (2011), Responsible Wool Standard (2016), Sadiq et al. (2017), Sprecher et al. (1997), Webster et al. (2008), Whay et al. (2003).